Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (CISG)

Preface
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Contents—Summary
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Contents
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
List of Contributors
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
List of Abbreviations
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Argentina
Table of Cases
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Australia
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
(p. xli) Bermuda
Brasil
Canada
Chile
China
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Germany
(p. lxiv) Greece
Hungary
Israel
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Mexico
Netherlands
New Zealand
(p. lxx) Poland
Republic of Korea
Russia
Scotland
Serbia
(p. lxxi) Singapore
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
Spain
Switzerland
(p. lxxix) United Kingdom
United States
Vietnam
Arbitral Tribunals
Court of Justice of the European Communities
European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)
Part I
	Chapter I.  Sphere of Application
		Article 1
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Preliminary Material
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
		Article 2
		Article 3
		Article 4
		Article 5
		Article 6
	Chapter II.  General Provisions
		Article 7
		Article 8
		Article 9
		Article 10
		Article 11
		Article 12
		Article 13
Part II
	Article 14
	Article 15
	Article 16
	Article 17
	Article 18
	Article 19
	Article 20
	Article 21
	Article 22
	Article 23
	Article 24
Part III
	Chapter I.  General Provisions
		Article 25
		Article 26
		Article 27
		Article 28
		Article 29
	Chapter II.  Obligations of the Seller
		Article 30
		Section I.  Delivery of the goods and handing over of documents
			Article 31
			Article 32
			Article 33
			Article 34
		Section II.  Conformity of the goods and third party claims
			Article 35
			Article 36
			Article 37
			Article 38
			Article 39
			Article 40
			Article 41
			Article 42
			Article 43
			Article 44
		Section III.  Remedies for breach of contract by the seller
			Article 45
			Article 46
			Article 47
			Article 48
			Article 49
			Article 50
			Article 51
			Article 52
	Chapter III.  Obligations of the Buyer
		Article 53
		Section I.  Payment of the price
			Article 54
			Article 55
			Article 56
			Article 57
			Article 58
			Article 59
		Section II.  Taking delivery
			Article 60
		Section III.  Remedies for breach of contract by the buyer
			Article 61
			Article 62
			Article 63
			Article 64
			Article 65
	Chapter IV.  Passing of Risk
		Article 66
		Article 67
		Article 68
		Article 69
		Article 70
	Chapter V.  Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer
		Section I.  Anticipatory breach and instalment contracts
			Article 71
			Article 72
			Article 73
		Section II.  Damages
			Article 74
			Article 75
			Article 76
			Article 77
		Section III.  Interest
			Article 78
		Section IV.  Exemptions
			Article 79
			Article 80
		Section V.  Effects of avoidance
			Article 81
			Article 82
			Article 83
			Article 84
		Section VI.  Preservation of the goods
			Article 85
			Article 86
			Article 87
			Article 88
Part IV
	Article 89
	Article 90
	Article 91
	Article 92
	Article 93
	Article 94
	Article 95
	Article 96
	Article 97
	Article 98
	Article 99
	Article 100
	Article 101
(p. 1) Introduction
I. 
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Introduction
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II. 
III. 
	Footnotes:
(p. 13) Preamble*
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Preamble
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 14) II.  General
(p. 15) III.  The Preamble in detail
	1.  New International Economic Order (paragraph 1)
	2.  Development of international trade (paragraph 2)
	3.  Uniform rules to promote international trade (paragraph 3)
	Footnotes:
Part I
	Chapter I.  Sphere of Application
		Article 1
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Preliminary Material
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
		Article 2
		Article 3
		Article 4
		Article 5
		Article 6
	Chapter II.  General Provisions
		Article 7
		Article 8
		Article 9
		Article 10
		Article 11
		Article 12
		Article 13
Part II
	Article 14
	Article 15
	Article 16
	Article 17
	Article 18
	Article 19
	Article 20
	Article 21
	Article 22
	Article 23
	Article 24
Part III
	Chapter I.  General Provisions
		Article 25
		Article 26
		Article 27
		Article 28
		Article 29
	Chapter II.  Obligations of the Seller
		Article 30
		Section I.  Delivery of the goods and handing over of documents
			Article 31
			Article 32
			Article 33
			Article 34
		Section II.  Conformity of the goods and third party claims
			Article 35
			Article 36
			Article 37
			Article 38
			Article 39
			Article 40
			Article 41
			Article 42
			Article 43
			Article 44
		Section III.  Remedies for breach of contract by the seller
			Article 45
			Article 46
			Article 47
			Article 48
			Article 49
			Article 50
			Article 51
			Article 52
	Chapter III.  Obligations of the Buyer
		Article 53
		Section I.  Payment of the price
			Article 54
			Article 55
			Article 56
			Article 57
			Article 58
			Article 59
		Section II.  Taking delivery
			Article 60
		Section III.  Remedies for breach of contract by the buyer
			Article 61
			Article 62
			Article 63
			Article 64
			Article 65
	Chapter IV.  Passing of Risk
		Article 66
		Article 67
		Article 68
		Article 69
		Article 70
	Chapter V.  Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer
		Section I.  Anticipatory breach and instalment contracts
			Article 71
			Article 72
			Article 73
		Section II.  Damages
			Article 74
			Article 75
			Article 76
			Article 77
		Section III.  Interest
			Article 78
		Section IV.  Exemptions
			Article 79
			Article 80
		Section V.  Effects of avoidance
			Article 81
			Article 82
			Article 83
			Article 84
		Section VI.  Preservation of the goods
			Article 85
			Article 86
			Article 87
			Article 88
Part IV
	Article 89
	Article 90
	Article 91
	Article 92
	Article 93
	Article 94
	Article 95
	Article 96
	Article 97
	Article 98
	Article 99
	Article 100
	Article 101
Introduction to Articles 1–6
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Introduction to Articles 1–6
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  The CISG in State courts
	1.  General
	2.  Function of the rules in Chapter I
	3.  Remaining scope of rules on the conflict of laws
IV.  The CISG in arbitration
	1.  General
	2.  Choice of law by the parties
	3.  Choice of law by the tribunal
		(a)  Conflict of laws.
		(b)  Direct choice.
V.  The application of the CISG
	1.  Direct application
	2.  Languages
VI.  Restricting the sphere of application by reservations
	1.  Principle
	2.  Individual reservations
		(a)  Non-application of Part II or Part III (Article 92).
		(b)  Non-application to individual territorial units (Article 93).
		(c)  Non-application between States with the same or related legal systems (Article 94).
		(d)  Non-application of Article 1(1)(b) (Article 95).
		(e)  Non-application of freedom of form rules (Article 96).
	Footnotes:
(p. 27) Article 1
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 1
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 28) I.  History
II.  General remarks on Article 1
	1.  Territorial sphere of application
	2.  Subject matter
	3.  Supplementary rules
III.  General requirements of Article 1(1)
	1.  Contract of sale
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Barter.
		(c)  Sales contracts with special financing agreements.
		(d)  Framework contracts.
		(e)  Modification and avoidance agreements.
	2.  Goods
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Software.
		(c)  Know-how etc.
		(d)  Documentary sales.
		(e)  Companies.
		(f)  Rights.
	3.  Places of business
	4.  Internationality
		(a)  General.
		(p. 38) (b)  Agency.
IV.  Specific requirements of Article 1(1)(a): Contracting States
V.  Specific requirements of Article 1(1)(b): Conflict of laws rules lead to the law of a Contracting State
	1.  General
	2.  Mechanism of Article 1(1)(b)
	3.  Reservation under Article 95
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Effects.
VI.  Article 1(2): CISG applies only if the internationality of the contract is apparent
	1.  General
	2.  Requirements of Article 1(2)
VII.  Article 1(3): Nationality of the parties or civil or commercial character of the parties or of the contract is irrelevant
	Footnotes:
(p. 47) Article 2
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 2
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  Article 2 in detail
	1.  Consumer sales (Article 2(a))
		(a)  Personal use.
		(b)  Discernibility.
		(c)  Burden of proof.
		(d)  Relationship to consumer protection law.
	2.  Auctions (Article 2(b))
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Scope of the provision.
	3.  Sales on execution or otherwise by authority of law (Article 2(c))
	4.  Stocks, shares, etc (Article 2(d))
	5.  Ships, vessels, hovercraft or aircraft (Article 2(e))
	6.  Electricity (Article 2(f))
	Footnotes:
(p. 60) Article 3
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 3
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 61) II.  General
III.  Article 3 in detail
	1.  Contracts for goods to be manufactured (Article 3(1))
		(a)  Contribution of work and materials.
		(b)  ‘Substantial’ test.
		(c)  Non-physical contributions.
		(d)  Land.
		(e)  Breach of the buyer’s undertaking.
	2.  Contracts for supply and services (Article 3(2))
		(a)  Mixed contracts.
		(b)  Interpretation as one contract.
		(c)  Additional obligations.
		(d)  Separate or unified contracts.
		(e)  ‘Preponderant part’.
	3.  Turnkey-contracts (Article 3(2))
	4.  Other mixed contracts
	5.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 73) Article 4
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 4
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 74) I.  History
II.  General
	1.  Scope of Convention as outlined by Article 4
	2.  Matters not mentioned by Article 4
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Dichotomy of substance and procedure outdated.
	3.  Matters outside the Convention
III.  Matters covered by the Convention (Article 4, sentence 1)
	1.  General
	2.  Formation of contract
		(a)  Objective agreement.
			(p. 77) (aa)  Offer and acceptance.
			(bb)  Other forms of contract conclusion.
			(cc)  Dispute resolution clauses.
		(b)  Standard terms.
	3.  Rights and obligations of the parties
		(a)  General.
			(aa)  Obligations.
			(bb)  Rights.
		(b)  Contractual stipulations on remedies.
		(c)  Pre-contractual liability.
		(d)  Concurrent remedies.
		(e)  Right to withhold performance.
	4.  Third parties
		(a)  Third party beneficiaries.
		(b)  Direct claims against the manufacturer.
			(aa)  Claims derived from first contract.
			(bb)  Claims derived from express warranties and guarantees.
	5.  Questions of proof
		(a)  Burden of proof.
		(p. 85) (b)  Standard of proof.
	6.  Set-off
IV.  Matters not governed by the Convention (Article 4, sentence 2)
	1.  General
	(p. 87) 2.  Issues of validity (Article 4, sentence 2(a))
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Legal capacity.
		(c)  Questions of validity relating to the consent of the parties.
			(aa)  Impossibility.
			(bb)  Consumer protection.
			(cc)  Mistake.
			(dd)  Tort/fraud.
		(d)  Validity of individual clauses and standard terms.
			(aa)  Violation of statutory prohibitions.
			(bb)  Gross disparity.
			(cc)  Burdensome obligations.
			(dd)  Hardship.
			(ee)  Exclusion and limitation of liability.
			(ff)  Agreed sums.
		(e)  Validity of usages.
	3.  Exclusion of property issues (Article 4, sentence 2(b))
		(a)  Transfer of property.
		(b)  Retention of title and other security interests.
	4.  Other matters not covered by the Convention
		(a)  Recovery of attorneys’ fees.
		(b)  Jurisdictional matters.
		(c)  Limitation of actions.
	Footnotes:
(p. 95) Article 5
I.  History
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 5
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  General
III.  Article 5 in detail
	1.  Exclusion of claims for death or personal injury
	2.  Recourse for death or personal injury
	3.  Damage to property
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Concurring domestic remedies.
		(c)  EC directives.
	Footnotes:
(p. 101) Article 6
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.I Sphere of Application, Article 6
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
	1.  ‘Opting-out’ approach
	2.  Two levels of party autonomy
		(a)  Level of conflict of laws.
		(b)  Level of substantive law.
	3.  General principle expressed by Article 6
III.  Exclusion of the CISG
	1.  Necessity for agreement
	2.  Standardized exclusion of the CISG is not advisable
	3.  Opting out of the CISG by choice of law
		(a)  Positive choice of law.
		(b)  Negative choice of law.
		(c)  Exclusion by implicit choice of law.
		(d)  Exclusion by subsequent choice of law.
		(e)  Dépeçage by partial choice of law.
IV.  Derogation or variation of the CISG’s provisions
	1.  General
	2.  Derogating from the entire CISG
	(p. 115) 3.  Derogating from and varying the effect of individual provisions of the CISG
V.  Opting into the CISG
	1.  General
	2.  Opting into the Convention by choice of law
	Footnotes:
Article 7
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 7
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 121) II.  General
III.  Interpretation of the Convention (Article 7(1))
	1.  General
	2.  Principles of interpretation
		(a)  General.
		(b)  International character.
		(c)  Need to promote uniformity of application.
		(d)  Observance of good faith in international trade.
	(p. 129) 3.  Methods of interpretation
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Wording and systematic position.
		(c)  Travaux préparatoires.
		(d)  Methods of public international law.
		(e)  Comparative law.
		(f)  Use of uniform projects.
IV.  Gap-filling (Article 7(2))
	1.  General
	2.  Gaps and interpretation
	3.  Matters governed by the Convention
	4.  General principles
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Principles derived from Part I.
		(c)  Principles derived from Part II.
		(d)  Principles derived from Part III.
		(e)  External principles.
	5.  General gaps
		(a)  Services obligations.
		(b)  Additional obligations.
		(c)  Materials to be provided by the buyer.
		(d)  Right to withhold performance.
	(p. 141) 6.  Recourse to domestic law
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Uniform projects.
		(c)  Individual cases.
	Footnotes:
(p. 143) Article 8
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 8
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 144) I.  Subject matter1
	1.  Interpretation and supplementation of statements and conduct
	2.  Determining contract content
	3.  Interpretation and defective intent
	4.  Interpretation and partial nullity
	5.  Borders to hardship
II.  Central ideas of interpretation and supplementation
	1.  Intent of the parties and protection of commerce
	2.  Completion of the contract
III.  Interpretation according to the intent of a party (Article 8(1))
	1.  Determination of party intent
	2.  Knowledge or imputable unawareness of a party
IV.  Interpretation according to a reasonable understanding (Article 8(2))
V.  Determination of contract content
	1.  Steps in the determination of contract content
	2.  Determinable common intention of the parties and discoverable intent of each
	3.  Objective third person
	4.  Judicial supplementation of the contract
VI.  Individual questions of interpretation
	1.  Alignment with the subject of the contract
	2.  Interpretation of the contract as a whole
	3.  Good faith is not a guiding principle for interpretation
	4.  Consideration of negotiations and circumstances of contract formation
		(a)  In general.
		(b)  The parol evidence rule179 and presumption of accuracy and completeness.
		(c)  Use of merger clauses.
	5.  Silence and duty to inquire
	6.  Foreseeability and recognition as circumstances
	7.  Usual meaning
	8.  Language risks
	9.  Practices between the parties
	10.  Usages
	11.  Contra proferentem
	12.  Favor negotii and interpretation favouring effect
	13.  Subsequent conduct of the parties
	14.  Favor debitoris?
(p. 172) VII.  Treatment of standard terms and conditions
	1.  Incorporation of standard terms
	2.  Surprising clauses
	3.  Precedence of individually agreed-upon terms
	4.  Interpretation of standard terms
VIII.  Procedural considerations
	1.  Question of law or fact
	(p. 180) 2.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 181) Article 9
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 9
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter1
	1.  Usages, practices, and determination of contract content
	2.  Applicability to rules of contract formation
	3.  Material foreign to the Convention
	4.  ‘Validity’ of usages
II.  Usages and practices (Article 9(1))
	1.  Agreement on usages
	2.  Practices between the parties
(p. 187) III.  International trade usages (Article 9(2))
	1.  Applicability of international trade usages
		(a)  Concept of trade usage.
		(b)  Reason for applicability.
	(p. 189) 2.  Requirements of applicability
		(a)  Knowledge and observance.
		(b)  International nature.
		(c)  Knowledge or imputed knowledge of the parties.
	3.  Examination and procedural treatment
IV.  Individual cases
	1.  Commercial letters of confirmation (Kaufmännisches Bestätigungsschreiben)176
	2.  Arbitration clauses and agreements on venue
	3.  Handling sets of rules
	Footnotes:
(p. 197) Article 10
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 10
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  Article 10 in detail
	1.  Relevant place of business (Article 10(a))
		(a)  Closest relationship to the contract and its performance.
		(b)  View by the parties.
	(p. 202) 2.  Habitual residence (Article 10(b))
	Footnotes:
(p. 203) Article 11*
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 11
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History and systematical setting
II.  General: functions and principle of freedom from requirements as to form
	1.  Principle
	(p. 205) 2.  Importance in international contracts
III.  Sphere of application
	1.  Formation and modification of the contract
		(a)  Formation under Article 14 et seq.
		(b)  Formation under other rules.
		(c)  Mixed contracts.
		(d)  Modifications to the contract.
	2.  Other declaratory acts and communications
		(a)  Other declarations provided for in the Convention
		(b)  Communications not provided for in the CISG.
IV.  Superseded rules
	1.  Validity or proof of a contract conditional on the observance of domestic requirements as to form
		(a)  Validity conditional on form.
		(b)  Right to adduce proof and bring proceedings conditional on form.
		(c)  Parol evidence rule.
		(d)  Consumer protection by form requirements.
		(e)  National rules on the use of language
		(f)  Duties of manifestations.
	2.  Problems of characterization
V.  Agreed requirements as to form
	Footnotes:
(p. 214) Article 12
I.  History
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 12
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Significance of a reservation
III.  Scope
	Footnotes:
(p. 218) Article 13
I.  History
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part I Sphere of Application and General Provisions, Ch.II General Provisions, Article 13
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Significance and functions
	1.  Situations covered
	(p. 219) 2.  Agreement on the need for writing
	3.  Writing required as a result of Articles 12, 96
III.  Broadening the scope of the rule enshrined in Article 13
	1.  General principle under Article 7(2)
	2.  Telefax
	3.  Electronic communications
	Footnotes:
Introduction to Articles 14–24
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Introduction to Articles 14–24
	Martin Schmidt-Kessel
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Scope: Objective agreement and validity
	1.  Questions of validity not concerning matters of objective agreement or form
	2.  Control of contractual clauses, in particular standard terms
		(a)  Control of the content of contractual clauses.
		(b)  Incorporation of standard terms.
		(c)  Control of surprising terms.
			(aa)  Surprising content.
			(bb)  Surprising language or presentation.
			(p. 229) (cc)  Combination of factors.
	3.  Dissent
	4.  Rights of withdrawal
	5.  Incorporation of dispute resolution clauses
		(a)  Objective agreement.
			(aa)  Applicability of Articles 14–24 ratione materiae.
			(bb)  Compatibility with separability presumption.
			(cc)  Applicability issues not governed by Articles 14–24.
		(b)  Formal validity.
		(c)  CISG and conflicting provisions (Brussels I Regulation, New York Convention, and others).
	6.  Agreements about ‘opting into’ or ‘opting out of’ the CISG
		(a)  Exclusion of the CISG’s application in accordance with Article 6 (‘opting out’).
		(b)  Choice of the CISG (‘opting in’).
II.  Scope: Other forms of concluding the contract
	1.  General position of the CISG
		(a)  Alternative types of contract formation also covered.
		(b)  Identification of applicable rules.
		(p. 242) (c)  Role of usages (Article 9).
	2.  Conclusion of contract by failure to respond to a commercial letter of confirmation
		(p. 244) (a)  Domestic rules pre-empted by the CISG.
		(b)  Usages in international trade (Article 9).
		(c)  Commercial letters of confirmation as evidence.
	3.  Agreements without clear offer and acceptance
	4.  Contract conclusion in electronic commerce
		(a)  Applicability of the CISG.
		(b)  Autonomous interpretation of Articles 14–24.
		(c)  Party consent to use of electronic communications.
	5.  Internet auctions
	6.  Commodity exchanges
	7.  Calls for tender
III.  Conclusion of multi-party contracts
	1.  Multi-party sales contracts
	2.  Applicability of Articles 14–24
	3.  Problems
(p. 255) IV.  Negotiations and pre-contractual duties
	1.  Pre-contractual duties arising under the CISG
	2.  Applicability of pre-contractual duties arising under domestic law to CISG contracts
		(a)  General duties of care for life, limb, property, etc.
		(b)  Protection from fraudulent conduct.
		(c)  Negligent misrepresentation.
		(d)  Breaking off contractual negotiations.
		(e)  Pre-contractual duties of information and disclosure.
	3.  Agreements to agree, purchase options, framework contracts, etc
V.  Conclusion of the contract and its content
VI.  Reservation under Article 92
VII.  Influence of Part II beyond the scope of the CISG
	1.  Articles 14–24 as a model for other uniform law texts and for domestic laws
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Uniform law texts.
		(c)  Domestic laws.
		(d)  Deviations from the model.
	2.  Effect on the interpretation of laws
		(a)  Influence of Part II on the interpretation of other laws.
		(b)  No interpretation of Articles 14–24 in light of other legal texts (Article 7(1)).
	Footnotes:
(p. 268) Article 14
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 14
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Basic elements
II.  Minimum content determined or determinable
	(p. 270) 1.  Minimum content
		(a)  Goods, quantity, and price.
		(b)  Identity of the parties.
		(c)  Other contractual details.
		(d)  Missing minimum content.
		(e)  Burden of proof.
	2.  Determination or determinability
		(a)  Express or implicit determination.
		(b)  Defects in intent.
		(c)  Determinability.
	3.  Powers of determination
		(a)  Determination by both parties or by a third party.
		(b)  Determination by one party.
			(aa)  General.
			(bb)  Issues of validity.
		(c)  Contract clauses referring to the ‘price currently charged by the seller’.
		(d)  Price review clauses etc.
(p. 278) III.  Indefinite price
	1.  Determinability requirement of Article 14(1), sentence 2
	2.  Historical background
	3.  Relationship between Articles 14 and 55: Possible approaches
	4.  Preferable solution
IV.  Intention to be bound
	1.  Offeror’s intention to be bound
	2.  Proposal’s objective meaning decisive
	3.  Specific cases
		(a)  ‘Without obligation’, freibleibend, sans engagement, etc.
		(b)  ‘Letter of intent’, etc.
		(c)  Invitatio ad offerendum.
		(d)  Presentations on the internet.
	4.  Non-binding nature of invitatio ad offerendum, concurrent pre-contractual duties
V.  Offers to the public
VI.  Conditions precedent and conditions subsequent
	1.  Contract formation subject to conditions
	2.  Application of the CISG
	(p. 289) 3.  Interpretation of conditions
	4.  Burden of proof
VII.  Incorporation of standard terms of business
	1.  Applicable provisions
	2.  Standard terms as part of the offer
		(a)  Reference to standard terms in offer.
		(b)  Offeree’s awareness of standard terms’ text
			(aa)  Standard terms known to offeree.
			(bb)  Offeror’s obligation to ensure offeree’s awareness: the ‘making available’ test.
	3.  Making the standard terms’ text available to the offeree
		(p. 298) (a)  Sending the standard terms’ text.
		(b)  Making the standard terms’ text otherwise available.
			(aa)  During meeting between the parties.
			(bb)  Through availability on the internet.
			(cc)  Constant business relationships.
			(dd)  Widely known standard terms.
			(ee)  Insufficient steps.
		(c)  Layout and format of standard terms’ text.
		(d)  Modifications to standard terms’ text.
	4.  Time of offeree’s awareness
	(p. 305) 5.  Languages and standard terms’ text
		(a)  Language used during contract negotiation.
		(p. 306) (b)  Language of contract.
		(c)  Other languages known to the offeree.
		(d)  ‘World languages’.
		(e)  Standard terms’ text in more than one language.
	6.  Incorporation of standard terms into offer according to Articles 8(3), 9
		(a)  Incorporation of certain standard terms as practice between the parties.
		(b)  Standard terms as international usage.
	7.  Acceptance of the offer
	(p. 312) 8.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 313) Article 15
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 15
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Function
II.  Effect of an offer reaching the offeree; withdrawal
	1.  Effectiveness
		(a)  Reaching the offeree.
		(b)  Offers to the public.
	2.  Withdrawal
		(p. 315) (a)  Declaration of withdrawal.
		(p. 316) (b)  Withdrawal of offers to the public.
		(c)  Legal effect of withdrawal.
	3.  Death, lack of legal capacity, insolvency of a party before his declaration reaches the addressee
	Footnotes:
(p. 318) Article 16
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 16
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  The problem and the solution adopted
	1.  The problem
	2.  The solution
II.  Exercise of the right to revoke; limits on the right (Article 16(1))
	1.  Revocation by a declaratory act that reaches the addressee
	(p. 321) 2.  End of the right to revoke
	3.  Consequences of ineffective revocation
	4.  Extension of the right to revoke
	5.  Burden of proof
III.  The binding nature of the offer (Article 16(2))
	1.  Binding nature resulting from the offer indicating to be irrevocable (Article 16(2)(a))
		(a)  Indication of irrevocability.
		(b)  Fixed time for acceptance as presumption of irrevocability.
		(c)  Rebuttal of the presumption.
	2.  Binding nature resulting from the offeree’s action in reliance on the offer (Article 16(2)(b))
IV.  Consequences of revocability or of revocation being barred; remedies under domestic law
	1.  Revocable offers
	2.  Irrevocable offers
	Footnotes:
(p. 328) Article 17
I.  Rejection reaching the offeror
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 17
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Expiry of a period set for acceptance
III.  Other grounds for termination
	Footnotes:
(p. 331) Article 18
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 18
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 332) I.  Outline
II.  Acceptance
	1.  Acceptance by declaration
		(a)  Intention to be bound and wording used.
		(b)  Means of communication.
	2.  Acceptance by conduct
		(a)  Types of conduct equivalent to a declaration.
		(b)  Change of role pursuant to Article 19(1).
		(c)  Silence.
		(d)  Cross-offers.
III.  Effectiveness of a declaration of acceptance
	1.  When acceptance becomes effective: significance
		(a)  Conclusion of the contract.
		(b)  Withdrawability of an acceptance.
	2.  Time for and effect of an acceptance which must reach the offeror
		(a)  Principle that acceptance must reach the offeror.
		(b)  Time for acceptance where a period has been fixed.
		(c)  Acceptance within a reasonable period.
		(p. 345) (d)  Time for acceptance of an oral offer.
	3.  Time for and effect of an acceptance which does not have to reach the offeror
		(a)  Acts.
		(b)  Declarations which do not need to reach the offeror.
		(c)  Timeliness of acceptance.
	4.  Acceptance without an indication reaching the offeror
		(a)  When provided for in the offer.
		(b)  Practices, usage, framework agreements.
		(p. 348) (c)  Effect.
IV.  Whether there is a duty to give notice of acceptance
	Footnotes:
(p. 350) Article 19
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 19
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 351) I.  Outline
	1.  History
	2.  Outline of Article 19(1)
	(p. 352) 3.  Outline and history of Article 19(2), (3)
	4.  Commercial letters of confirmation and ‘battle of the forms’ during the CISG’s drafting history
(p. 353) II.  Materially different terms
	1.  Differences
		(a)  Agreement in fact.
		(b)  Additions, interpretation of the offer.
		(c)  Expectations and proposals of the acceptor.
		(d)  Materially different terms under Article 19(3).
			(aa)  Terms covered.
			(bb)  Article 19(3) as rebuttable presumption.
		(e)  Other materially different terms.
	2.  Legal consequence of a material alteration
		(a)  Rejection of the offer.
		(p. 360) (b)  Counter-offer.
		(c)  Acceptance of the counter-offer.
III.  Immaterially different terms
	1.  Differences
	(p. 362) 2.  Legal consequences of an immaterial alteration
		(a)  Addition to the contract.
		(b)  Objection by the offeror.
		(c)  ‘Without undue delay’.
		(d)  Consequences of a timely objection.
IV.  Conflicting standard terms (‘battle of the forms’)
	1.  Problem
	2.  Proposed solutions
		(a)  Last shot rule.
		(b)  Knock-out rule.
		(c)  Other approaches.
	3.  Preferable solution
		(p. 368) (a)  Conclusion of contract despite conflicting standard terms.
			(aa)  Oral conclusion of contract.
			(bb)  Party autonomy: the parties’ (implied) derogation from Article 19.
				(i)  Through practices between the parties.
				(ii)  Through the parties’ declarations.
				(iii)  Relevance of the parties’ subsequent conduct.
			(cc)  Conclusion of contract where Article 19 applies.
		(b)  Content of the contract.
	Footnotes:
(p. 373) Article 20
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 20
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  When time begins to run1
	1.  Time fixed by reference to a period
	2.  Time fixed in a letter or telegram
	3.  Time fixed by telephone or similar direct means of communication
		(a)  Telephone, telex, fax, etc.
		(b)  Electronic communication.
	4.  Time fixed by separate declaration
(p. 376) II.  Calculation of the period28
	1.  Basic rule (Article 20(2), sentence 1)
	2.  Exception (Article 20(2), sentence 2)
(p. 377) III.  Article 20 as expression of general principles
	1.  Article 20(1)
	2.  Article 20(2)
	Footnotes:
(p. 378) Article 21
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 21
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Outline
II.  Article 21(1)
	1.  Late acceptance
		(a)  Acceptance after lapse of the offer.
		(b)  Material and immaterial lateness.
		(c)  Reasons for lateness.
	2.  Conclusion of a contract despite late acceptance
		(a)  Acceptance must reach the offeror.
		(b)  Approval of a late acceptance.
		(c)  Approval without delay.
		(d)  Approval by notice or orally.
		(e)  Time when contract is concluded.
		(f)  Approval given with additions.
		(g)  Withdrawal of a declaration of approval.
		(h)  Approval given early.
			(i)  Late acceptance containing modifications.
	3.  Contrary agreement
III.  Delay in transmission, Article 21(2)
	1.  Policy aims
	(p. 385) 2.  Reasons for the delay
	3.  Discernible delay in transmission
	4.  ‘Normal transmission’
	(p. 386) 5.  Protest by the offeror
	6.  Protest made too soon
IV.  Specific issues
	1.  Derogation from Article 21(2)
	2.  Uncertainty and opportunities for speculation
	3.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 388) Article 22
I.  Outline
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 22
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Content
	1.  Effectiveness of an acceptance
	(p. 389) 2.  Conduct amounting to acceptance
	3.  Withdrawal as a declaratory act
	4.  Additions
	(p. 390) 5.  Similar declarations
	6.  Speculation
	Footnotes:
(p. 391) Article 23
I.  Time when a contract is concluded
	1.  Importance of the rule
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 23
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	2.  Cases not addressed by Article 23
		(a)  Contract concluded subject to conditions.
		(b)  Consent of third party.
		(c)  Performance subject to conditions.
		(d)  Agreement reached without offer and acceptance.
II.  Place where a contract is concluded
	Footnotes:
(p. 394) Article 24
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part II Formation of the Contract, Article 24
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Function and origin of the rule
II.  Declarations to which Article 24 applies
	1.  Declarations which must reach the addressee
	(p. 396) 2.  Distinction between declarations made orally and those delivered by other means
		(a)  Oral declarations.
		(b)  Declarations delivered by other means.
		(c)  Use of an intermediary.
(p. 398) III.  When an oral declaration ‘reaches’ the addressee
	1.  Must declarations ‘made orally’ have been heard?
		(a)  Theoretical approaches.
		(b)  Autonomous interpretation of Article 24.
	(p. 399) 2.  Declarations made inter praesentes
	3.  Declarations made over the telephone
	4.  Telephone answering machines
IV.  When declarations delivered by ‘other means’ ‘reach’ the addressee
	1.  Address to which the declaration is to be sent
	2.  Means of declaration
	3.  Delivery
	4.  Specific means of communication
		(a)  Letter.
		(b)  Telegram.
		(c)  Fax, telex.
		(p. 404) (d)  E-mail.
		(e)  Websites on the World Wide Web.
		(f)  Electronic Data Interchange (EDI).
		(g)  Short Message Service (SMS).
	5.  Party autonomy
	6.  Communications delivered outside business hours
	7.  Unintelligible declarations
V.  Foreign languages
	1.  Use of a foreign language as an impediment to the declaration ‘reaching’ the addressee
	(p. 411) 2.  Allocation of the ‘language risk’ in detail
	(p. 413) 3.  Voidability under domestic law
VI.  Abuse of rights: Addressee preventing receipt
VII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 25
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.I General Provisions, Article 25
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Outline and history
	1.  Unwinding of the contract as remedy of last resort
	2.  History of Article 25
II.  General; functions of a ‘fundamental breach of contract’
	1.  Precondition for certain remedies under the CISG
	2.  Primary role of the particular contract and its circumstances
	3.  Limited role of Nachfrist
	4.  Article 25’s concept of fundamental breach of contract and ‘false friends’
III.  Preconditions of a ‘fundamental breach of contract’
	1.  Breach of an obligation, committed by the obligor
		(a)  Types of obligations.
			(aa)  Contractual obligations.
			(bb)  Extracontractual duties.
			(cc)  Protective duties.
		(b)  Effect of obligor’s right to suspend or withhold performance.
		(c)  Obligor’s intention to breach irrelevant.
		(d)  Multiple breaches.
	2.  Detriment to the other party
		(a)  Definition of contractual expectation by the parties decisive.
		(b)  Examples.
	(p. 430) 3.  Defining ‘fundamental breach’ in standard business terms
	4.  Foreseeability and/or knowledge of the detriment as a factor in contract interpretation
		(a)  Where an obligation’s importance has been clearly defined in the contract.
		(b)  Where an obligation’s importance has been addressed during negotiations.
		(c)  In other cases.
	5.  Time of foreseeability or knowledge
	6.  Burden of proof
		(a)  Breach of contract.
		(b)  Detriment (ie importance of obligation breached).
		(c)  Foreseeability (or lack thereof).
(p. 437) IV.  Specific cases
	1.  Breach of the seller’s obligations
		(a)  Non-delivery of goods.
		(p. 438) (b)  Late delivery of goods.
			(aa)  General.
			(bb)  Fundamental breach.
			(cc)  No fundamental breach.
			(dd)  Effect of ICC Incoterms®.
		(c)  Failure to deliver in full.
		(p. 442) (d)  Delivery of non-conforming goods.
			(aa)  General.
			(bb)  Definition of threshold by the parties.
			(cc)  Impact of seller’s right to cure.
			(dd)  Additional period of time (Nachfrist).
			(p. 448) (ee)  Unwinding of contract as ultima ratio, limited to cases where the buyer can make no use of the goods.
				(i)  Buyer’s possibility to make use of defective goods.
				(ii)  Unreasonable burden for buyer as limit.
				(iii)  Further cases of fundamental breach.
				(p. 452) (iv)  Further non-fundamental breaches.
		(e)  Non-conforming documents.
			(aa)  Accompanying documents.
			(bb)  Documentary sales, in particular commodity sales.
				(i)  General.
				(p. 454) (ii)  Principle of strict compliance.
				(iii)  Strict compliance and Article 25.
				(iv)  Late tender of documents.
	2.  Breach of the buyer’s obligations
		(a)  Late payment.
		(b)  Documentary payment obligations.
		(c)  Failure to take delivery.
	3.  Breach of other (ancillary) obligations
	Footnotes:
(p. 461) Article 26
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.I General Provisions, Article 26
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Effects of contract avoidance
	1.  Release from original obligations and creation of duties to make restitution
	2.  Comparative analysis
III.  Requirements
	1.  A ground for avoiding the contract
	(p. 463) 2.  Declaration
		(a)  Form.
		(b)  Clarity of content.
		(c)  Lack of a declaration of avoidance.
		(d)  Declaration of avoidance versus agreement to terminate the contract.
	3.  Specific questions
		(a)  Risk of transmission.
		(b)  Binding effect.
		(c)  ‘Receivability’.
		(d)  Addressee; agency; assignment; transfer of contract.
	(p. 469) 4.  Time limits
(p. 470) IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 471) Article 27
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.I General Provisions, Article 27
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Sphere of application
	1.  Communications covered
	(p. 474) 2.  Oral and equivalent declarations
	3.  Contrary agreement, practices, or usage
		(a)  Agreements to derogate from Article 27.
		(b)  Usage and practices.
		(c)  Standard terms of business.
III.  Conditions of exemption from the transmission risk
	1.  Means appropriate in the circumstances
	2.  Language
	3.  Dispatch
IV.  Legal consequences
	1.  Loss of the communication
	2.  Delay
	3.  Error in transmission
	4.  Time when declaration becomes effective
	5.  Whether a declaration is binding
	Footnotes:
(p. 482) Article 28
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.I General Provisions, Article 28
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
	1.  Object and purpose
	(p. 485) 2.  Importance in practice
II.  Preconditions for application of Article 28
	1.  Summary
	2.  Parties’ rights to require performance according to the CISG
	3.  Court
	4.  Own law
		(a)  Forum law excluding private international law.
		(b)  Scope of selection of the proper law.
		(p. 489) (c)  Applicable cases.
		(d)  Result.
	5.  Comparative standard of the ‘similar contract of sale’
	6.  Recap
III.  Legal consequence: rejection of the action for performance
(p. 493) IV.  Not excludable by mutual consent
	Footnotes:
(p. 494) Article 29
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.I General Provisions, Article 29
	Ulrich G Schroeter
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Modification or termination of contracts (Article 29(1))
	1.  Applicable provisions
		(a)  Agreement.
		(p. 496) (b)  Freedom of form.
	2.  Modification or termination
		(a)  Modifications and additions.
			(aa)  General.
			(bb)  Modifications in immediate aftermath of contract conclusion.
			(cc)  Other modifications.
		(b)  Modifications involving third parties.
		(c)  Termination.
			(aa)  Termination vs avoidance.
			(bb)  Prerequisites.
			(cc)  Contracts conferring benefits on third parties.
			(dd)  Consequences of termination.
II.  Agreements as to form (Article 29(2), sentence 1)
	1.  Legal effect of agreement as to form
	2.  Modification of an agreement as to form
	3.  Merger clauses; confirmation clauses; framework agreements
		(a)  Merger clauses.
		(b)  Confirmation clauses.
		(c)  Framework agreements.
	(p. 507) 4.  Meaning of ‘writing’
	5.  Agreement
	6.  Agreement as to form must itself be in writing
III.  Abuse of rights (Article 29(2), sentence 2)
	1.  Preconditions
		(p. 509) (a)  Reliance-inducing conduct.
		(b)  Reliance, induced by the other party’s conduct.
		(c)  Contractual derogation from Article 29(2), sentence 2.
	2.  Domestic rules as to form and misuse of rights
	3.  Legal effect; consideration by the court of its own motion
	4.  Concurrent domestic remedies
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 30
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, Article 30
	Widmer Lüchinger
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter of Article 30
II.  Delivery obligation
	1.  Substance of the obligation to deliver the goods
	2.  ICC Incoterms®
	3.  Goods in the buyer’s possession
III.  Handing over of documents
(p. 518) IV.  Transfer of property
	1.  Transfer
	2.  Retention of title
V.  Further obligations of the seller
	Footnotes:
Article 31
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.I Delivery of the Goods and Handing Over of Documents, Article 31
	Widmer Lüchinger
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and function
	1.  Overview
		(p. 522) (a)  The content of the delivery obligation.
		(b)  The place of delivery.
	2.  Function
		(a)  Buyer’s right to require performance (Article 46(1)).
		(b)  Buyer’s right to avoid the contract (Article 49(1)(b)).
		(c)  Buyer’s right to claim damages (Article 45(1)(b)).
		(d)  Passing of risk.
		(e)  Jurisdiction.
II.  Article 31(a): Delivery by handing the goods over to the carrier
	1.  Contract of sale involving carriage of the goods
		(a)  Carriage.
		(b)  Contracts of sale ‘involving’ carriage.
	2.  The carrier
		(a)  Starting point.
		(b)  Independent carriers.
		(c)  Transportation by the seller or the seller’s employees.
		(d)  Transportation by several carriers.
		(e)  Suppliers.
		(f)  Freight forwarders.
	(p. 529) 3.  Handing over the goods
		(a)  Transferring custody to the carrier.
		(b)  Handing over ‘for transmission to the buyer’.
		(c)  Place of handing over.
		(d)  Legal effects of handing over.
	4.  Breach of contract by the seller in connection with delivery
		(a)  Dispatch of non-conforming goods.
		(b)  Delivery of an aliud.
		(c)  Partial delivery.
		(d)  Defective packaging.
		(e)  Unjustified imposition of costs on the buyer.
		(f)  Dispatch to the wrong place.
	(p. 533) 5.  Seller’s instructions to return or stop goods in transit
		(a)  Instructions to return or stop the goods.
		(b)  Buyer’s liability for additional costs.
		(c)  Seller’s obligation to preserve the goods.
		(d)  Seller’s liability.
(p. 534) III.  Article 31(b) and (c): Delivery by placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal
	1.  Starting point
	2.  Place of delivery under Article 31(b)
		(a)  The four cases covered by Article 31(b).
		(b)  Goods in transit?
		(p. 535) (c)  Parties’ knowledge at the time of conclusion of the contract.
	3.  Place of delivery under Article 31(c)
	4.  Placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal
		(a)  Making the goods available.
		(b)  Notifying the buyer.
		(c)  Packaging.
		(p. 537) (d)  Loading.
		(e)  Goods made available subject to conditions.
		(f)  Goods stored at third-party premises.
		(g)  Legal effects of placing goods at buyer’s disposal.
	5.  Breach of contract by the seller in connection with delivery
		(a)  Delivery of non-conforming goods.
		(b)  Partial delivery.
		(c)  Goods made available at the wrong place.
		(d)  Where the seller ceases to make the goods available.
IV.  Agreement to deliver at ‘any other particular place’
	1.  Starting point
	2.  ICC Incoterms®
		(a)  Where the place of delivery corresponds to Article 31.
		(b)  Where the place of delivery deviates from Article 31.
		(c)  Where the delivery obligation corresponds to Article 31.
		(d)  Where the delivery obligation deviates from Article 31.
	3.  Place of delivery at the buyer’s place of business
	4.  Breach of contract by the seller in connection with delivery
		(a)  Loss or damage during transportation to the place of delivery.
		(b)  Delivery at the wrong place.
	5.  Sale of goods in transit
	6.  Assembly obligations and obligations to provide instructions
V.  Costs and licences
	1.  Transportation costs
	2.  Customs duties and charges
	3.  Export and import licences
VI.  Jurisdiction of the courts for the place of performance
	1.  General
	2.  Legal position under Article 7(1)(b) Brussels Regulation
		(a)  Overview.
		(b)  Actual place of performance of the delivery obligation.
		(c)  Impact of delivery terms on jurisdiction.
		(d)  Consequences for Article 31.
	3.  Legal position under Article 7(1)(a) Brussels Regulation
		(a)  Overview.
		(b)  Contracts of sale under Article 31(a).
		(c)  Contracts of sale under Article 31(b) or (c).
	(p. 558) 4.  Legal position under the Lugano Convention
	Footnotes:
(p. 559) Article 32
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.I Delivery of the Goods and Handing Over of Documents, Article 32
	Widmer Lüchinger
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and function
II.  Duty to give notice of consignment (Article 32(1))
	1.  Scope of application
		(p. 561) (a)  Delivery by handing the goods over to a carrier.
		(b)  Goods not clearly identified to the contract.
	2.  Notice
		(a)  Content.
		(b)  Time.
		(c)  Risk of transmission.
	(p. 563) 3.  Consequences
		(a)  Where seller complies with the duty.
		(b)  Where seller fails to comply.
	4.  Contractual obligation to give notice (ICC Incoterms®)
(p. 565) III.  Duty to conclude the contract of carriage (Article 32(2))
	1.  Scope of application
	2.  Seller’s obligations
		(a)  Conclusion of a contract of carriage.
		(b)  Carriage ‘to the place fixed’.
		(c)  ‘Appropriate’ means of transportation.
		(d)  ‘Usual’ terms.
	3.  Use of a third party
		(a)  Freight forwarder.
		(b)  Sub-carrier.
		(c)  Direct delivery by supplier.
	4.  Transportation costs
	5.  Transportation insurance
	6.  Significance of buyer’s instructions
	7.  Consequences of seller’s breach
IV.  Duty to provide information for the purpose of effecting insurance (Article 32(3))
	Footnotes:
(p. 571) Article 33
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.I Delivery of the Goods and Handing Over of Documents, Article 33
	Widmer Lüchinger
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and function
	1.  Subject matter
	2.  Function
		(a)  Identifying the time when seller must deliver.
		(b)  Identifying the time when buyer’s remedies for non-delivery arise.
		(c)  Identifying the time when buyer must take delivery.
	3.  ‘Delivery period’ and ‘period for taking delivery’ distinguished
II.  Date for delivery fixed by or determinable from the contract: Article 33(a)
(p. 575) III.  Period for delivery fixed by or determinable from the contract: Article 33(b)
	1.  General
	2.  Seller’s right to choose the date for delivery
	(p. 576) 3.  Buyer’s right to choose the date for delivery
		(a)  Buyer’s contractual right to call off the goods.
		(b)  Buyer’s right owing to ‘circumstances’.
		(c)  Buyer’s failure to co-operate.
	4.  Timely delivery
IV.  No time fixed by or determinable from the contract: Article 33(c)
	1.  Delivery within a reasonable time
	2.  Determining the date for delivery
	3.  Contracts subject to a condition or time limit
	4.  Non-binding date or period for delivery
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 582) Article 34
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.I Delivery of the Goods and Handing Over of Documents, Article 34
	Widmer Lüchinger
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and scope
II.  Handing over of documents (Article 34, sentence 1)
	1.  The reference to the contract
	2.  Time of handing over
	3.  Place of handing over
	4.  Form of handing over
	5.  Consequences of seller’s breach
(p. 587) II.  The right to cure (Article 34, sentences 2 and 3)
	1.  General
	2.  Non-conforming documents
	(p. 588) 3.  ‘Handing over’ of non-conforming documents
	4.  Curing lack of conformity
	5.  Unreasonable inconvenience or expense
	(p. 589) 6.  Damages
III.  Burden of proof
IV.  Jurisdiction
	Footnotes:
Article 35
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 35
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 593) II.  General
	1.  Comparison with liability for defective goods in domestic legal systems6
	(p. 594) 2.  Conformity of the goods with the contract and third party claims
III.  Requirements for conformity
	1.  Contractual requirements (Article 35(1))
		(a)  Discrepancies in quantity.
		(b)  Discrepancies in quality.
		(c)  Discrepancies in nature.
		(d)  Containers or packaging.
	(p. 599) 2.  Subsidiary definition of conformity (Article 35(2))
		(a)  Fitness for the purpose for which the goods would ordinarily be used (Article 35(2)(a)).
		(b)  Fitness for a particular purpose (Article 35(2)(b)).
		(c)  Sale by sample or model (Article 35(2)(c)).
		(d)  Usual or adequate packaging (Article 35(2)(d)).
	(p. 612) 3.  Immaterial discrepancies204
	4.  Mixed contracts
	5.  Lack of conformity attributable to the buyer
IV.  Exclusion of liability
	1.  Awareness of the buyer (Article 35(3))212
	2.  Failure to give notice of non-conformity
	3.  Disclaimers
V.  Remedies
	1.  Under the CISG245
	2.  Under domestic law249
		(a)  Mistake.
		(b)  Misrepresentation.
		(c)  Fraud and deceit.
VI.  Questions of proof
	1.  In general and scope
	2.  Object of proof
	3.  Burden of proof
		(p. 620) (a)  Non-conformity based on Article 35(1).
		(b)  Non-conformity based on Article 35(2).
		(c)  Exclusion of liability (Article 35(3)).
	4.  Standard of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 623) Article 36
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 36
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  Lack of conformity when the risk passes (Article 36(1))
IV.  Lack of conformity after the risk has passed (Article 36(2))
	1.  Seller’s breach of an obligation
	2.  Guarantee
V.  Burden of proof
	1.  General
	2.  Guarantee of durability
	Footnotes:
(p. 629) Article 37
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 37
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  Premature delivery
IV.  Right to cure lack of conformity
	1.  Scope
	2.  Types of cure
		(a)  Making up any deficiency.
		(b)  Delivery of replacement goods.
		(c)  Remedying lack of conformity.
	3.  Incomplete cure
	4.  Limits
(p. 634) V.  Consequences
	1.  Exclusion of remedies under Article 45 et seq
	2.  Damages
	3.  Buyer’s refusal
VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 636) Article 38
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 38
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
	1.  Purpose and nature of the duty to examine
	2.  Comparative law16
	3.  Scope of application
III.  Method of examination
	1.  Examination by the buyer or a third party
	2.  Agreement by the parties and usage
	3.  Method of examination in the absence of agreement or usage
		(a)  Law of the place of examination?
		(b)  General principles.
		(c)  Groups of cases.
IV.  Period for the examination
	1.  Determination of the period72
	2.  Beginning of the period
		(a)  In general.
		(b)  Premature delivery; late delivery; partial delivery.
		(c)  Contract involving carriage of the goods (Article 38(2)).
		(d)  Redirection in transit or redispatch (Article 38(3)).
V.  Costs of the examination
VI.  Contrary agreement
VII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 652) Article 39
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 39
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
	1.  Purpose and nature
	2.  Comparative law6
	3.  Scope of application
III.  Notice
	1.  Requirements as to content
	2.  Form and transmission risk
	3.  Addressee
IV.  Period for giving notice of lack of conformity (Article 39(1))
	1.  Reasonable period
	2.  Beginning of the period
V.  Time limit (Article 39(2))
	1.  Two-year period
	2.  Guarantee period
	3.  Limitation
VI.  Consequences of a failure to give any or proper notice
	1.  Exclusion of remedies
	2.  Exceptions
		(a)  Article 40.
		(b)  Article 44.
		(c)  Waiver by the seller.
		(d)  Forfeiture.
		(e)  Knowledge for other reasons.
		(f)  No disadvantages for the seller.
VII.  Contrary agreement
	1.  In general
	(p. 673) 2.  Contractual guarantees
VIII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 674) Article 40
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 40
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  General
III.  Requirements
	1.  Seller knew or could not have been unaware of the facts
	2.  No disclosure
	3.  Relevant time
IV.  Consequences
	1.  Under the CISG
	2.  Under domestic law
V.  Contrary agreement
(p. 679) VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 680) Article 41
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 41
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 681) II.  Transfer of title and acquisition in good faith or free from encumbrances
III.  Requirements for liability for defects in title
	1.  Third party rights
		(a)  Sale of third party goods.
		(b)  Rights in personam and in rem.
		(c)  Public law encumbrances.
		(d)  Intellectual property rights.
	2.  Third party claims
	3.  Third party rights or claims based on the buyer’s conduct
	4.  Seller’s own rights or claims
	5.  Relevant time
	6.  Geographical scope of application
IV.  Exclusion of liability for defects in title
	1.  Consent of the buyer
	2.  Failure to give notice
	3.  Exemption clauses
V.  Remedies
	1.  Under the CISG
	2.  Under domestic law
VI.  Burden of proof107
	Footnotes:
(p. 692) Article 42
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 42
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Existence of industrial or intellectual property rights
III.  Requirements for liability
	1.  Third party rights based on intellectual property
		(a)  Intellectual property.
		(p. 696) (b)  Rights of personality, etc.
	2.  Third party claims
	3.  Seller’s own rights
	4.  Relevant time
	5.  Territorial limitations
		(a)  State of use.
		(b)  Buyer’s State.
		(c)  Seller’s State.
		(d)  State of transit.44
	6.  Seller’s knowledge or culpable lack of knowledge
IV.  Exclusion of liability
	1.  Buyer’s knowledge or culpable lack of knowledge (Article 42(2)(a))
	2.  Compliance with technical instructions, etc (Article 42(2)(b))
		(a)  Seller’s exemption.
		(b)  Seller’s remedies.
	3.  Failure to give notice
	4.  Exemption clauses
(p. 705) V.  Remedies
	1.  Under the CISG
	(p. 706) 2.  Under domestic law
VI.  Burden of proof89
	Footnotes:
(p. 707) Article 43
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 43
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Exclusion of liability (Article 43(1))
	1.  Duty to give notice
	2.  Period for giving notice
	3.  Form, risk of loss in transit, and addressee
	4.  Absence of a preclusive period
	5.  Legal consequences of failure to give notice
III.  The exception in Article 43(2)
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 712) Article 44
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.II Conformity of the Goods and Third Party Claims, Article 44
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and purpose of the rule
II.  Reasonable excuse
	1.  Equitable ‘excuse’
	2.  Excuse due to failure to examine and failure to give notice
	(p. 715) 3.  Specific cases
III.  Consequences
	1.  Right to claim damages
		(a)  Loss for which compensation may be claimed.
		(b)  Failure to examine goods or documents—a breach of the duty to mitigate loss?
	(p. 718) 2.  Price reduction
	3.  Seller’s right to cure the defect
	4.  Damages claim of the seller for failure to notify of lack of conformity
	5.  Limitation period
	6.  Contrary agreement and usage
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 45
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 45
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and function of Article 45
II.  Seller’s failure to perform an obligation (Article 45(1))
	1.  Failure to perform a contractual obligation as the basic precondition of liability
		(a)  Seller’s obligations.
		(b)  Failure to perform.
	2.  ‘Failure to perform’ not dependent on fault or circumstances within the seller’s control
	3.  Burden of proof
III.  Remedies under Articles 46–​52 (Article 45(1)(a))
	1.  Right to require performance, avoidance of the contract, price reduction
	2.  Right to elect; ius variandi
		(a)  Right to elect.
		(b)  Ius variandi
			(aa)  Right to require performance.
			(bb)  Avoidance of the contract.
			(cc)  Price reduction.
		(c)  Incumbent upon buyer to decide between remedies.
	3.  Buyer’s right to suspend performance
IV.  Damages (Article 45(1)(b) and (2))
	1.  Seller’s guarantee liability (Article 45(1)(b))
	2.  Claim for damages combined with another remedy (Article 45(2))
		(a)  Right to require performance.
		(b)  Avoidance of the contract.
		(c)  Price reduction.
V.  No period of grace allowed (Article 45(3))
VI.  Concurrent domestic remedies
VII.  Limitation
VIII.  Jurisdiction of the place of performance
IX.  Exclusion of liability
	Footnotes:
(p. 736) Article 46
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 46
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and principle of Article 46
	1.  Priority of the right to require performance
	2.  Delivery of substitute goods and repair
II.  The general right to require performance (Article 46(1))
	1.  Preconditions and subject matter
	2.  Limits
		(a)  Resort to a remedy inconsistent with the right.
		(b)  Limits to enforceability using Article 28.
		(c)  Impediments
			(aa)  Exemption under Articles 79 and 80.
			(bb)  Impossibility, unreasonableness.
		(d)  Duty to take reasonable measures to mitigate loss.
		(e)  Purchase of replacement goods.
	3.  Burden of proof
III.  The right to require delivery of substitute goods (Article 46(2))
	1.  Sphere of application
	2.  Concept of delivery of substitute goods
	3.  Lack of conformity of the goods sold
	4.  Fundamental breach of contract
		(a)  Objective importance of the defect.
		(b)  No cure of the defect
			(aa)  By repair.
			(bb)  Irreparable defects.
			(cc)  Exceptions.
		(c)  Burden of proof.
		(d)  Recap.
	5.  Time limit for assertion of the claim to delivery of substitute goods and place for such delivery
	6.  Return of non-​conforming goods
	7.  Seller’s choice between delivery of substitute goods and repair
	8.  Legal consequences
IV.  The right to require repair (Article 46(3))
	1.  Preconditions
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Reasonableness.
		(c)  Time limit.
	2.  Subject matter
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Place, time, costs.
	3.  Consequences of failure to repair
V.  Derogatory agreements
	Footnotes:
(p. 755) Article 47
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 47
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Functions of an additional period of time
II.  Fixing an additional period of time (Article 47(1))
	1.  Fixing the period and demand for performance
		(a)  Fixing the period.
		(b)  Demand for performance.
	2.  Reasonable period of time
		(a)  Determined by the circumstances.
		(b)  Period too short.
		(c)  Period too long.
	3.  Formalities of an additional period of time
		(a)  Timing.
		(b)  Form and transmission risk.
	4.  Burden of proof
III.  Binding effect on the buyer (Article 47(2))
	1.  No resort to remedies before expiration of the period
	2.  Expiration of the period; compliance
	3.  Refusal to perform
	4.  Right to damages
		(a)  Damages for delay.
		(b)  Other losses.
		(c)  Contractual penalties.
	5.  Buyer bound if no additional period of time fixed?
	Footnotes:
(p. 763) Article 48
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 48
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and principle of Article 48
II.  Right to remedy a failure to perform (Article 48(1), sentence 1)
	1.  Failure to perform
	2.  Remedying a defect
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Modalities.
	3.  Costs
	4.  Reasonableness
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Criteria.
		(c)  Burden of proof.
	5.  Reservation of avoidance of the contract
		(a)  Purpose of the reservation.
		(b)  Fundamental nature of the breach of contract.
		(c)  Right to avoid takes priority over seller’s right to cure.
	6.  Relationship to other remedies
		(a)  Avoidance of the contract.
		(b)  Price reduction.
		(c)  Delivery of substitute goods/​repair.
		(d)  Damages.
	7.  Legal consequences
III.  Right to remedy a failure to perform following buyer’s failure to respond to the seller’s request (Article 48(2) to (4))
	1.  Request that the buyer make known his willingness to accept performance by the time indicated (Article 48(2))
		(a)  Purpose.
		(b)  Preconditions.
		(c)  Legal consequences.
	2.  Notice of willingness to perform within a specified period of time without a request that the buyer make known his position (Article 48(3))
	3.  Notice must reach the buyer (Article 48(4))
	4.  Seller’s declaration crossing with that of buyer
IV.  Derogatory agreements
	Footnotes:
(p. 775) Article 49
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 49
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and underlying principle of Article 49
	1.  Article 49(1)
	2.  Article 49(2)
II.  Preconditions of the right to avoid the contract (1): Fundamental breach of contract (Article 49(1)(a))
	1.  General
	2.  Failure to deliver
		(a)  Delay.
		(b)  Non-​performance.
	3.  Delivery of non-​conforming goods
	4.  Defect in title
	5.  Defective documents
	6.  Other breaches of contract
	7.  Burden of proof
	8.  Contract provision
III.  Preconditions of the right to avoid the contract (2): Additional period of time fixed for delivery (Article 49(1)(b))
	1.  Non-​delivery
		(a)  Principle.
		(b)  Exceptions.
		(c)  Defective or missing documents.
	2.  Failure to perform within the additional period fixed
IV.  Declaration of avoidance of the contract
	1.  Requirement for a declaration
	2.  Form, content, and addressee of the declaration
	3.  Avoidance of the contract in part
V.  Period within which a declaration must be made (1): Late delivery (Article 49(2)(a))
	1.  Before delivery: No time limit on declaration of avoidance
	2.  After delivery: Declaration of avoidance of the contract within a reasonable period
VI.  Period within which a declaration must be made (2): Other breaches of contract (Article 49(2)(b))
	1.  Principle
	2.  Declaration within a reasonable time
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Reasonable period of time.
		(c)  Consequences of a failure to observe the time limit.
	3.  Beginning of the period
		(a)  Buyer knew or ought to have known (Article 49(2)(b)(i)).
		(b)  Expiration of an additional period fixed by the buyer and seller’s refusal to perform (Article 49(2)(b)(ii))
			(aa)  Underlying principle.
			(bb)  Preconditions.
			(cc)  Legal consequences.
		(c)  Expiration of the period within which a declaration must be made under Article 48(2) and rejection of performance (Article 49(2)(b)(iii)).
VII.  Legal consequences
	1.  Avoidance of the contract justified
	2.  Avoidance of the contract not justified
		(a)  Seller’s consent to avoidance.
		(b)  Avoidance of the contract by the seller on account of the buyer’s refusal to perform.
		(c)  Seller abides by the contract.
VIII.  Derogatory agreements
	Footnotes:
(p. 799) Article 50
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 50
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and underlying principle of Article 50
II.  Preconditions
	1.  Goods not in conformity with the contract
	2.  Notice of lack of conformity
	3.  Declaration of price reduction
	4.  Priority of seller’s right to cure
III.  Calculation
	1.  Proportional calculation
	2.  Relevant time and place
		(a)  Relevant time.
		(b)  Relevant place.
	3.  Goods without value
	4.  Not dependent on loss suffered by the buyer
	5.  Burden of proof
IV.  Legal consequences
	1.  General
	2.  Relationship to other remedies
V.  Derogatory agreements
	Footnotes:
(p. 810) Article 51
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 51
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter and scope of application of Article 51
	1.  Subject matter
	2.  Goods capable of division into parts
	3.  Instalment contracts
	4.  Rejection of partial delivery
II.  Article 51(1): Remedies in case of delivery of only a part of the goods
	1.  Partial delivery (defect in quantity)
	2.  Partially defective delivery
	(p. 814) 3.  Obligation to give notice of lack of conformity
III.  Article 51(2): Avoidance of the contract in its entirety
	Footnotes:
(p. 815) Article 52
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.II Obligations of the Seller, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Seller, Article 52
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Delivery before the date fixed (Article 52(1))
	1.  Principle
	(p. 816) 2.  Right to refuse to take delivery
	3.  Consequences of taking delivery
II.  Delivery of an excess quantity (Article 52(2))
	1.  Delivery of an excess quantity
	(p. 818) 2.  Rejection
		(a)  Preconditions.
		(b)  Consequences.
	3.  Taking delivery
	4.  Delivery of more valuable goods
	Footnotes:
Article 53
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, Article 53
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  The buyer’s obligation to pay the purchase price
	1.  Determination of the purchase price
	2.  Currency
		(a)  Contractual currency.
		(b)  Currency governed by and implicitly settled in the CISG.
		(c)  The buyer’s right to pay in the currency of the place of payment.
		(d)  The seller’s right to require payment in the currency of the place of payment.
	3.  Means of payment
		(a)  Open account/cash payment/credit transfer.
		(p. 828) (b)  Acceptance of a draft (bill of exchange).
		(c)  Documentary collection.
		(d)  Documentary credits—letters of credit.
	4.  Place of payment
	5.  Time of payment
	6.  Interest on the due purchase price
	7.  Costs of payment
	8.  Partial payments
	9.  Imputation of payments
	10.  Action for the purchase price
	11.  Foreign exchange control
	12.  Limitation periods
	13.  Application to countertrade
	14.  Assignment and assignability
	15.  Third party payment
	16.  The buyer’s obligation to provide security
		(a)  Payment guarantee.
		(b)  Standby letter of credit.
III.  The buyer’s obligation to take delivery of the goods
	1.  Supplying parts of the material necessary for manufacture or production of the goods
	2.  Specifications of the goods
	3.  ICC Incoterms® 2010
	4.  Duty to cooperate and inform
IV.  Other obligations of the buyer
V.  The seller’s remedies for breach of contract by the buyer
VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 54
I.  Subject matter
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 54
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Compliance with governmental procedures
	1.  Exchange control laws and regulations
	(p. 841) 2.  Direct application of laws and regulations that require compliance in order to effect payment
III.  Compliance with banking procedures
IV.  The seller’s remedies
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 844) Article 55
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 55
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
	1.  Comparative law background
	2.  Drafting history
	(p. 846) 3.  Scope of application—current views
II.  Open price contracts
	1.  Contract formation—purchase price neither determined nor determinable
		(a)  Parties intended to conclude an open price contract.
		(b)  Parties (partly) performed the contract despite the open price.
		(c)  Parties concluded a contract by means other than by offer and acceptance.
		(d)  Failure of (one of) the parties or a third party to determine the price.
		(e)  CISG part II reservation.
		(f)  Article 55 as a means of interpretation of implicit price terms.
	2.  Validity
		(a)  ‘Validly concluded’ refers to Article 14 which excludes any domestic requirements of a pretium certum.
		(b)  Right of one of the parties to determine the price.
	3.  Exclusion of rights under domestic law to unilaterally determine the price
III.  Price determination
	1.  Price generally charged for such goods sold under comparable circumstances in the trade concerned
	2.  Current price
	3.  Current price at the time of the conclusion of the contract
	4.  Reasonable price
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 852) Article 56
I.  Subject matter
II.  Price fixed according to the weight of the goods
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 56
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
III.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 854) Article 57
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 57
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Contractual place of payment
III.  Payment against goods or documents at the place of exchange, Article 57(1)(b)
	1.  Sphere of application—concurrent performance by the parties
	2.  Payment against goods or documents, Article 58(1)
	3.  Contract involving carriage of goods or goods in transit if seller dispatches the goods on terms pursuant to which the goods or documents will only be handed over against payment, Article 58(2)
	4.  Contract involving goods stored in a third party warehouse
IV.  Payment at the seller’s place of business, Article 57(1)(a)
	1.  Sphere of application—advance performance by one of the parties
	2.  Open account payment
	3.  Contract involving carriage of goods or goods in transit or goods in a third party warehouse if seller does not dispatch the goods on terms pursuant to which the goods or documents will only be handed over against payment
	4.  Change of seller’s place of business, Article 57(2)
V.  Discharge of payment obligation— risk of loss and delay of payment
VI.  Assignment of the claim for the purchase price— effects on the place of payment
(p. 863) VII.  International jurisdiction at the place of payment
	1.  Brussels Convention/Lugano Convention/domestic rules on jurisdiction
	2.  Brussels Regulation (Recast) and revised Lugano Convention
VIII.  Place of payment of sums other than the purchase price
	1.  Damages and penalties
	(p. 868) 2.  (Partial) Repayment of the purchase price
	3.  Interest
(p. 869) IX.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 870) Article 58
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 58
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Contractual time of payment (due date)
III.  Simultaneous payment against goods or documents, Article 58(1)
	1.  Delivery by placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal at the seller’s place of business or the place of storage or production
	2.  Delivery by placing the goods at the buyer’s disposal at his place of business or any other agreed place
	3.  Contract involving carriage of goods
	4.  Goods in transit
	5.  Contract involving goods stored in a third party warehouse
	6.  Payment against documents
IV.  Contract involving carriage of goods under the seller’s reservation that the goods or documents are only to be handed over against payment, Article 58(2)
V.  Legal consequences resulting from the time of payment
	1.  The seller’s remedies for late payment
	2.  The seller’s right to reject premature payments
	(p. 881) 3.  Interest
VI.  Rights of retention
	1.  The seller’s rights of retention, Article 58(1), (2)
	2.  The buyer’s right of retention, Article 58(1)
	3.  Article 71 and applications of a general right of retention
VII.  The buyer’s right to examine the goods before payment, Article 58(3)
VIII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 888) Article 59
I.  Subject matter
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.I Payment of the Price, Article 59
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  No (formal) request for payment or other formality required
III.  Invoice
IV.  Application of Article 59 to payment of sums other than the purchase price
	Footnotes:
Article 60
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.II Taking Delivery, Article 60
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  The buyer’s obligation to take delivery of the goods
	1.  Taking over the goods and/or the documents
	2.  Acts enabling the seller to make delivery
	3.  Retention rights
		(a)  Premature delivery, Article 52(1).
		(b)  Excess quantity, Article 52(2).
		(c)  Late delivery.
		(d)  Non-conforming goods.
		(e)  Non-conforming documents.
III.  Other obligations of the buyer
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 61
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Buyer, Article 61
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  The buyer’s failure to perform any of his obligations
(p. 900) III.  The seller’s remedies
	1.  Require performance, set additional period of time, contract avoidance, specification, Articles 61(1)(a), 62 to 65
	2.  Damages, Articles 61(1)(b), 74 to 77
	3.  Retention rights
	4.  Penalties
	5.  Anticipatory breach, Article 72
	6.  Instalment contracts, Article 73
IV.  Damages and concurrent remedies, Article 61(2)
V.  Exemption from liability, Articles 79, 80
(p. 903) VI.  Contractual exclusion of liability
VII.  No period of grace, Article 61(3)
(p. 904) VIII.  The buyer’s right to set-off
IX.  No concurrent remedies under domestic law
X.  Limitation periods
	Footnotes:
(p. 906) Article 62
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Buyer, Article 62
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
	(p. 907) 1.  Comparative law background
	2.  Drafting history
II.  The seller’s right to require the buyer to perform the contract
	(p. 909) 1.  Action for the price
	2.  Action for taking delivery or performing any other obligation
III.  Restrictions on the seller’s right to require performance
	1.  Inconsistent remedies
	2.  Specific performance, Article 28
		(a)  Action for the price.
		(b)  Action for taking delivery or performing any other obligation.
	3.  Duty to mitigate loss, Article 77
	4.  Exemption from liability, Articles 79, 80
	5.  Self-help sale, Article 88
IV.  Concurrent remedies and change to other remedies
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 914) Article 63
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Buyer, Article 63
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Prerequisites for giving notice under Article 63
	1.  Application to all obligations of the buyer
	2.  Time of notice
III.  Notice of additional period of time for performance, Article 63(1)
	1.  Requirements as to content
		(a)  Fixed period of time.
		(b)  Period of time of reasonable length.
	2.  Transmission risk, Article 27
IV.  Provisional preclusion of other remedies of the seller, Article 63(2)
	1.  Remedies provisionally precluded during the fixed additional period of time
	2.  All remedies available upon fruitless expiration of additional period of time
	3.  The seller’s right to damages
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 922) Article 64
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Buyer, Article 64
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Prerequisites for contract avoidance by the seller, Article 64(1)
	1.  Fundamental breach of contract by the buyer, Article 64(1)(a)
		(a)  Failure to pay.
		(b)  Failure to take delivery.
		(c)  Failure to perform any other obligation.
	2.  Expiration of an additional period of time for performance of payment or taking delivery, Article 64(1)(b)
III.  Time limits on the seller’s right to avoid the contract if the buyer has paid the price, Article 64(2)
	1.  Late performance, Article 64(2)(a)
	2.  Continuing breach of contract, Article 64(2)(b)
	3.  Preclusion of right of contract avoidance
IV.  Declaration of contract avoidance, Article 26
V.  Effects of contract avoidance
	1.  Release from obligations and restitution, Articles 81 to 84
	2.  Damages, Articles 74 to 77
	(p. 938) 3.  Relationship between the seller’s remedy of contract avoidance and his remedy to require the buyer to perform the contract
VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 941) Article 65
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.III Obligations of the Buyer, s.III Remedies for Breach of Contract by the Buyer, Article 65
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject matter
II.  Prerequisites for the seller’s specification
	1.  The contract requires the buyer’s specification
	2.  The buyer’s failure to make specification
		(a)  Date agreed upon.
		(b)  The seller’s request to make specification.
III.  Specification by the seller
	1.  The seller’s notice supplying missing specification
		(a)  Requirements of the buyer that may be known to the seller.
		(b)  Information of the buyer of the specification and its details.
		(c)  Reasonable time for the buyer to make different specification.
		(d)  Legal consequences.
	2.  The buyer’s reaction
	3.  Remaining risks for the seller
IV.  Possible restrictions on the seller’s specification
	1.  Application of Article 28
	(p. 947) 2.  Application of Article 77
V.  The seller’s other remedies
VI.  Other possible applications of the general principle behind Article 65
(p. 949) VII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Introduction to Articles 66–70
I.  General
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Introduction to Articles 66–70
	Florian Mohs
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Comparative law considerations
	1.  Periculum est emptoris
	2.  Res perit domino
	3.  Handing over of the goods
III.  Principles of passing of risk under the CISG
	1.  Starting point
	2.  Identification of the goods
	3.  Rudimentarily or not expressly regulated questions
IV.  CISG and ICC Incoterms®
	Footnotes:
(p. 958) Article 66
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Article 66
	Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Subject matter
III.  Notion of risk
	1.  Starting point
	2.  Governmental interferences
	(p. 962) 3.  Changes in transport
IV.  Risk and liability
	1.  Scope of Article 66 in fine
	(p. 965) 2.  Standard for seller’s conduct
	3.  Compliant conduct of the seller
(p. 966) V.  Risk and the action for the price
	1.  Principle
	2.  Restriction of claim for the purchase price
VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 968) Article 67
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Article 67
	Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Subject matter
III.  Basic rule (Article 67(1), sentence 1)
	1.  Carriage called for under the contract
	2.  Carrier
	3.  Handing over
IV.  Carriage from an agreed place (Article 67(1), sentence 2)
V.  Withholding documents (Article 67(1), sentence 3)
VI.  Identification of the goods (Article 67(2))
	1.  General
	2.  Bulk cargo
	(p. 978) 3.  No retroactive effect of passing of risk
VII.  Questions of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 979) Article 68
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Article 68
	Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Subject matter
III.  Basic rule (Article 68, sentence 1)
IV.  Exception (Article 68, sentence 2)
	1.  Carriage called for under the contract
	2.  Specific circumstances
	3.  Carrier
V.  Seller’s bad faith (Article 68, sentence 3)
	1.  Scope
	(p. 985) 2.  Extent
	3.  Standard of bad faith
VI.  Bulk cargo
(p. 987) VII.  Questions of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 988) Article 69
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Article 69
	Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Subject matter
III.  Parties in the same place (Article 69(1))
	1.  Taking over of the goods at the place of the seller (Article 69(1), first alternative)
	2.  Passing of risk in case of delay in taking over the goods (Article 69(1), second alternative)
		(a)  Delay in taking over the goods.
		(b)  Placing at disposal.
		(c)  Exoneration; buyer’s other breaches.
IV.  Any other place as place of delivery (Article 69(2))
	1.  Placing at disposal
	2.  Buyer’s knowledge
V.  Identification of the goods (Article 69(3))
VI.  Questions of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 996) Article 70
I.  History
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.IV Passing of Risk, Article 70
	Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Subject matter
III.  Scope
	1.  Fundamental breach of contract
	2.  Non-fundamental breach of contract
	3.  Re-transfer of risk
	Footnotes:
Article 71
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.I Anticipatory Breach and Instalment Contracts, Article 71
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
(p. 1003) II.  Function and scope
	1.  Context
	2.  Purpose of the rule
	3.  Scope of application
		(a)  Advance performance by either the debtor or the creditor; concurrent performance.
		(b)  Grounds for suspension.
		(p. 1005) (c)  Instalment contracts.
		(d)  Suspension of damages.
		(e)  Right of suspension after performance has become due?
		(f)  Right of suspension referring to non-synallagmatic obligations?
	4.  Volume, quantity, and value of the suspended performance
	(p. 1008) 5.  Effects
	6.  Non-mandatory nature
III.  Impending future breach of a substantial part of the contractual duties; prognosis (Article 71(1))
	1.  Overview
	2.  Requirements in detail
		(a)  Impending breach of an obligation.
		(b)  Grounds for endangerment.
			(aa)  Article 71(1)(a).
			(bb)  Article 71(1)(b).
		(c)  Becoming apparent after the conclusion of the contract.
		(d)  Prognosis.
(p. 1014) IV.  Right to suspend performance
	1.  Exercising the right of suspension
	2.  Time restrictions
	3.  Duty to give notice
		(a)  Time limits.
		(b)  Form.
	4.  Effects
		(a)  In case of notification.
		(b)  In case of lack of notification.
	(p. 1016) 5.  Exclusion of domestic law
V.  Right of stoppage (Article 71(2))
	1.  Purpose of the rule
	2.  An exclusive right of the seller
	3.  Requirements
	4.  Effect on the parties
	5.  Effect on third parties
VI.  Loss of the right of suspension or stoppage
	1.  Grounds for loss
		(a)  Overview.
		(b)  In particular: Providing assurance.
			(aa)  General remarks.
			(bb)  State of suspension.
			(cc)  Effects of providing assurance.
			(dd)  Effects of failure to provide assurance.
	2.  Renewal of the contract schedule
VII.  Claims for damages
	1.  The creditor’s claims for damages
	(p. 1023) 2.  The debtor’s claims for damages
VIII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1024) Article 72
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.I Anticipatory Breach and Instalment Contracts, Article 72
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Function and scope
	1.  Protection of the creditor prior to the date of performance
	2.  Comparative analysis
	3.  Differentiation between objective grounds and grounds based on the debtor’s conduct
	4.  Distinguishing Article 72 from other remedies
(p. 1028) III.  Right of avoidance in case of a future fundamental breach of contract, Article 72(1)
	1.  Overview
	2.  Future fundamental breach
	3.  Prediction
(p. 1031) IV.  Duty to give notice, Article 72(2)
	1.  Purpose of the rule
	2.  Notice as a precondition for the right of avoidance
	3.  Form and time limits
	4.  Duty to substantiate
	5.  Reasonability of the notice
	6.  Fixing a deadline for providing assurance
	(p. 1035) 7.  Combination of the notices in Article 72(2) and Article 71(3)
	8.  Providing assurance
		(a)  Adequacy of assurance.
		(b)  Effect.
		(c)  Failure to provide (adequate) assurance.
		(d)  Form requirements and time limits.
V.  Anticipatory repudiation, Article 72(3)
	1.  Purpose of the rule
	(p. 1037) 2.  Extent
	3.  Declaration of refusal to perform
	4.  Revocability?
VI.  Right of avoidance; declaration
	1.  Article 26
	(p. 1039) 2.  Time limits
	3.  Effect
VII.  Damages
VIII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1041) Article 73
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.I Anticipatory Breach and Instalment Contracts, Article 73
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Function and scope
	1.  Overview
	(p. 1043) 2.  Comparative analysis9
III.  Breach with regard to a single instalment (Article 73(1))
	1.  Overview
	2.  Definition of ‘instalment contract’
	3.  Fundamental breach of contract
	4.  Avoidance—form and time limits
	5.  Effects of avoidance
(p. 1048) IV.  Avoidance with respect to future instalments (Article 73(2))
	1.  Overview
	2.  Current breach of a duty
	3.  Interrelation between current and future breach of contract
	4.  Prediction of a future fundamental breach of contract
	5.  Avoidance of the contract
		(a)  Avoidance for the future.
		(b)  Duty to give prior notice?
		(c)  Form and time limits for declaring avoidance.
		(d)  Effects.
	6.  Distinguishing Article 73(2) from Articles 71, 72
V.  Extension of the right of avoidance by reason of interdependence (Article 73(3))
	1.  Overview
	2.  Avoidance according to Article 73(1)
	3.  Interdependence
		(a)  Interdependence of individual instalments.
		(b)  Criteria.
	4.  Avoidance only with respect to future or past instalments?
	5.  Effects
	6.  Form and time limits
(p. 1056) VI.  Distinguishing Article 73 from Article 51
VII.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 74
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.II Damages, Article 74
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Basic principles and system
	1.  Principles
	2.  Relationship to other provisions of the CISG
	3.  Relationship to other remedies
(p. 1061) III.  Scope of application of Article 74
	1.  Breach of contractual obligations
	2.  Breach of non-actionable duties
	3.  Death and personal injury
	4.  Persons entitled to damages and third party losses
IV.  Form of compensation
V.  Extent of damages
	1.  General
	2.  Categories of loss
		(a)  Non-performance loss.
		(b)  Incidental loss.
		(c)  Consequential loss.
	3.  Loss of profit
	4.  Non-pecuniary loss
	5.  Causation
VI.  Calculation of loss
	1.  Concrete and abstract calculation of loss
	2.  Betterment
	3.  Disgorgement of profits145
	4.  Relevant time for calculation of loss
VII.  Foreseeability rule (sentence 2)156
	1.  General
	2.  Relevant persons and relevant point in time
	3.  Standard of foreseeability
	4.  Object of foreseeability
	5.  Examples
		(p. 1080) (a)  Non-performance loss.
		(b)  Incidental loss.
		(c)  Consequential loss.
VIII.  Contractual stipulations on liability
	1.  General
	2.  Agreed sums201
	(p. 1083) 3.  Limitation of liability210
IX.  Individual matters
	1.  Place of payment
	2.  Limitation periods
	3.  Currency of compensation
X.  Questions of proof
	1.  Burden of proof
	2.  Standard of proof
	3.  Furnishing evidence
	Footnotes:
(p. 1087) Article 75
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.II Damages, Article 75
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Basic principles
II.  Prerequisites
	1.  Entering into a substitute transaction
	2.  After avoidance of the contract
	3.  Reasonableness of the substitute transaction
	4.  Application of the foreseeability rule?
III.  Legal consequences
	1.  Recovery of non-performance loss
	2.  Recovery of further damages
	3.  Relationship to Articles 74 and 76
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1096) Article 76
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.II Damages, Article 76
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Basic principles
II.  Prerequisites
	1.  No substitute transaction
	2.  Avoidance of the contract
	3.  Existence of a market price
	4.  Price fixed by the contract
	5.  Application of the foreseeability rule?
(p. 1100) III.  Legal consequences
	1.  Recovery of non-performance loss
		(a)  Relevant place for calculating the market price (Article 76(2)).
		(b)  Point in time for calculating loss.
	2.  Recovery of further loss
	3.  Relationship to Articles 74 and 75
(p. 1103) IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1104) Article 77
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.II Damages, Article 77
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Basic principles
II.  Scope of application
	1.  Damages for breach of contract
	2.  Other remedies
	3.  Distinction from Article 80
(p. 1107) III.  Extent of the duty to mitigate damages
	1.  General
	2.  Individual cases
	3.  Substitute transactions in particular
	4.  Reimbursement for expenses
(p. 1110) IV.  Legal consequences (sentence 2)
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Article 78
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.III Interest, Article 78
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
II.  Previous drafts
III.  Scope
IV.  Preconditions
	1.  Due date
		(a)  Payment of the price.
		(b)  Other claims.
		(c)  Liquidated sum.
		(d)  Price reduction.
		(e)  Damages claims.
	2.  Non-payment
	3.  No other preconditions
	4.  Counterclaims by the debtor
		(a)  Set-off.
		(b)  Suspend performance.
	5.  Termination of the contract
		(a)  Contract is avoided.
		(b)  Reduction.
V.  Provisions
VI.  Cessation
VII.  Rate of interest
	1.  Domestic law or uniform approach?
		(p. 1119) (a)  Problems of a uniform approach.
		(b)  Problems applying domestic law.
		(c)  Result.
	2.  Interest rates in some States87
	3.  Usage and practices
	4.  Agreement
	(p. 1125) 5.  Compound interest
VIII.  Other claims for interest
	1.  Additional loss
	(p. 1126) 2.  Article 84(1)
	3.  Interest on judgments
	Footnotes:
Article 79
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.IV Exemptions, Article 79
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Basic principles
	1.  Content of the regulation
	2.  Relationship to other provisions of the CISG
	3.  Parallels in (inter)national commercial law6
II.  Sphere of application of Article 79
	1.  Non-performance of contractual obligations
	(p. 1132) 2.  Delivery of non-conforming goods
	3.  Non-actionable duties
	(p. 1133) 4.  Guarantees, liquidated damages, and penalties
	5.  Imputation of knowledge
III.  Conditions for exemption under Article 79(1)
	1.  General requirements
		(a)  Impediment beyond control.
		(b)  Unforeseeability of the impediment.
		(c)  Unavoidability of the impediment and of its consequences.
		(d)  Causation of non-performance
	2.  Specific problem areas
		(a)  Natural phenomena and catastrophes.
		(b)  State interventions.
		(p. 1138) (c)  Responsibility for own sphere.
		(d)  Liability for own personnel.
		(p. 1139) (e)  Labour disputes.
		(p. 1140) (f)  Financial capacity.
		(g)  Procurement risk.
		(h)  Conformity of the goods and third party rights or claims.
		(i)  Economic impossibility.
		(j)  ‘Ethical hardship’.
		(k)  Utility risk.
IV.  Liability for third persons according to Article 79(2)
	1.  Third persons
	(p. 1146) 2.  Exemption
	3.  Imputation of knowledge
V.  Temporary impediments to performance (Article 79(3))
VI.  Duty to inform the promisee (Article 79(4))
	1.  In general
	2.  Notice
	3.  Liability for damages
VII.  Legal consequences of an exemption (Article 79(5))
	1.  No liability for damages
	(p. 1150) 2.  Right to require specific performance
	3.  Promisee’s other remedies
VIII.  Contractual modifications
	1.  Modalities of the exemption
	2.  Guarantees of performance
IX.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1155) Article 80
I.  Basic principles
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.IV Exemptions, Article 80
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Conditions for exemption
	1.  Act or omission of the promisee
	2.  Cause of non-performance
	3.  Causation by both parties
III.  Legal consequences
	1.  Exemption of the promisor
	2.  Liability of the promisee
IV.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Introduction to Articles 81–84
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.V Effects of Avoidance, Introduction to Articles 81–84
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Sphere of application
	1.  Avoidance and restitution
	2.  Right to avoid the contract and declaration of avoidance
	3.  Comparative analysis
	4.  Property in the goods
	5.  Application of Article 81 et seq beyond the case of avoidance
		(a)  Delivery of substitute goods.
		(b)  Exemption, Article 79.
		(c)  Contractual rights to avoid the contract and consensual avoidance.
		(d)  Partial restitution.
II.  The rules in outlines
	1.  Avoidance of the contract and damages
	2.  Effects of avoidance
	3.  Concurrent restitution; concurrent compensation of benefits
	Footnotes:
(p. 1168) Article 81
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.V Effects of Avoidance, Article 81
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Requirements of avoidance of the contract
	1.  Grounds of avoidance
	2.  Declaration of avoidance
III.  Effects of avoidance of the contract
	1.  Parties’ release from their original obligations
	2.  Exclusion of domestic law
	3.  Third parties’ rights
	4.  Continuing obligations
		(a)  Overview.
		(b)  In particular: damages.
	5.  Partial restitution
	6.  Application of Article 81 to consensual avoidance of the contract
IV.  Restitution of what has been paid or supplied
	1.  Right to claim restitution
	2.  Form and scope of restitution
	3.  Concurrent restitution
		(a)  The principle.
		(b)  A right of set-off under the Convention?
	4.  Place of making restitution
		(a)  General remarks.
		(p. 1179) (b)  Place of repayment.
		(c)  Place of restitution of the goods.
		(d)  No general principle of restitution at the innocent party’s place of business.
		(e)  Place of restitution and judicial competence.
	5.  Costs of restitution
	6.  Time limits for making restitution; seller’s failure to accept the goods
V.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1183) Article 82
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.V Effects of Avoidance, Article 82
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1184) I.  History
II.  Loss of the right to avoid the contract (Article 82(1))
	1.  Principle of restitution with unimpaired goods
	2.  Comparative analysis
	3.  Impossibility of restitution
	4.  De minimis rule
	5.  Relevant point in time
	6.  Legal consequences
III.  Exceptions to the principle (Article 82(2))
	1.  Overview
	2.  Not due to the buyer’s act or omission40 (Article 82(2)(a))
		(p. 1189) (a)  Breach of contract by the seller.
		(b)  Force majeure.
		(c)  Other cases.
	3.  Examination of the goods (Article 82(2)(b))
	4.  Resale, consumption, or transformation of the goods (Article 82(2)(c))
		(a)  Seller’s risk of use in the normal course of business.
		(b)  Consumption, transformation.
		(c)  Use.
		(p. 1193) (d)  Resale.
		(e)  Disposal of useless goods.
		(f)  Time limits.
		(g)  Normal course of business.
IV.  Subsequent loss, decrease in value or resale of the goods
V.  No application of Article 82 in case of contract avoidance by the seller or by mutual consent
(p. 1197) VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
(p. 1198) Article 83
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.V Effects of Avoidance, Article 83
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Sphere of application
	1.  Principle of independent remedies
	2.  Continuing remedies
		(a)  Price reduction.
		(b)  Delivery, substitute delivery, cure of defects.
		(c)  Damages.
		(p. 1200) (d)  Contractual remedies.
	3.  Problems of delimitation
	Footnotes:
(p. 1201) Article 84
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.V Effects of Avoidance, Article 84
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Purpose of the rule and sphere of application
	1.  A supplement to restitution
	2.  Scope of application
	3.  Right to payment/set-off
	4.  Exclusion of domestic law
III.  Interest on the purchase price (Article 84(1))
	1.  An obligation of the seller
		(a)  Overview.
		(b)  Interest ‘from the date on which the price was paid’.
		(c)  Cessation of the duty to pay interest.
	2.  Interrelation between interest and damages
		(a)  The principle.
		(b)  Points of intersection.
	(p. 1206) 3.  Calculation of interest
		(a)  Interest rate at the seller’s place of business.
		(b)  Abstract interest calculation.
	4.  Currency
	5.  Compensation for currency devaluation exceeding the interest rate?
IV.  Concomitant equalization of benefits (Article 84(2)(a))
	1.  Defining ‘benefits’
	2.  Benefits derived from using the goods
	3.  Costs of use; expenses
		(a)  Net benefit; deduction of expenses.
		(b)  Deductible costs.
			(aa)  General remarks.
			(bb)  Necessary expenditures.
			(cc)  Luxury expenditures.
			(dd)  Useful expenditures.
			(ee)  Expenses that are not directly linked to the goods.78
	4.  Foregone benefits
(p. 1213) V.  Equalization by means of a surrogate (Article 84(2)(b))
	1.  Benefit as a surrogate
	2.  Benefits from using the goods (commodum ex re)
	3.  Benefits from selling the goods (commodum ex negotiatione)
	4.  Net benefit
	5.  Lack of a surrogate
VI.  Burden of proof
	Footnotes:
Introduction to Articles 85–88
I.  General
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.VI Preservation of the Goods, Introduction to Articles 85–88
	Christiana Fountoulakis
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1217) II.  Consequences in case of infringement
III.  Analogy
	Footnotes:
(p. 1218) Article 85
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.VI Preservation of the Goods, Article 85
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
II.  Previous drafts
III.  Conditions
	1.  Delay in taking delivery
		(a)  Delay or refusal.
		(b)  Delay of payment.
	2.  Possession of the goods
		(a)  Possession.
		(b)  Ability to control the disposition.
	3.  No further conditions
(p. 1221) IV.  Consequences
	1.  Obligation to preserve the goods
	2.  Responsibility for costs
	3.  Right of retention
	4.  Infringement of the obligation to preserve the goods
	Footnotes:
(p. 1224) Article 86
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.VI Preservation of the Goods, Article 86
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
II.  Previous drafts
(p. 1225) III.  Conditions for the obligation to preserve the goods
	1.  Goods received
	2.  Intention to reject the goods
		(a)  Examples.
		(b)  Manifestation of the intention to reject.
IV.  Conditions for the obligation to take possession of the goods
	1.  Dispatch
	2.  Rejection
	3.  Possibility of taking possession
		(a)  Payment of the price.
		(b)  No unreasonable inconvenience.
		(p. 1228) (c)  Responsibility for third persons.
	4.  Presence of the seller
	5.  Avoidance of the contract
V.  Obligation to preserve the goods, responsibility for costs, right of retention
(p. 1229) VI.  Miscellaneous
	Footnotes:
(p. 1230) Article 87
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.VI Preservation of the Goods, Article 87
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
II.  Previous drafts
III.  Conditions
(p. 1231) IV.  Consequences
	1.  Careful choice
	2.  Insurance?
	3.  Performance?
	4.  Legal relationship to the depositary
	5.  Costs
	Footnotes:
(p. 1233) Article 88
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part III Sale of Goods, Ch.V Provisions Common to the Obligations of the Seller and of the Buyer, s.VI Preservation of the Goods, Article 88
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
(p. 1234) II.  Previous drafts
III.  ‘Self-help sale’ (paragraph 1)
	1.  Delay of performance
	2.  Unreasonable delay
	(p. 1235) 3.  Obstacles
	4.  Notice of intention to sell
	5.  Performance of the sale
IV.  Emergency sale (paragraph 2)
	1.  Danger of rapid deterioration of the goods
	2.  Unreasonable expense
	3.  Prior notice
	4.  Performance of the sale
	(p. 1238) 5.  Duty of best effort
V.  Legal relationships to third persons
VI.  Use of the proceeds of sale
	Footnotes:
Introduction to Articles 89–101
I.  History
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Introduction to Articles 89–101
	Klaus Bacher
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  General
III.  Main elements of the final provisions
	1.  Overview
	2.  Diplomatic clauses
	3.  Priority clause
	4.  Reservations
	5.  Temporal aspects
	6.  Denouncing ULIS and ULF
	Footnotes:
(p. 1244) Article 89
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 89
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1245) Article 90
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 90
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General
II.  Article 90 in detail
	1.  International agreement
	2.  Matters governed by the Convention
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Conflict of laws rules.
		(c)  Formal requirements.
	3.  Legal effect of Article 90
		(a)  General.
		(b)  Problematic cases.
	Footnotes:
(p. 1252) Article 91
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 91
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1253) Article 92
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 92
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1255) Article 93
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 93
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1258) Article 94
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 94
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1262) Article 95
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 95
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1264) Article 96
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 96
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1267) Article 97
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 97
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1268) Article 98
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 98
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1269) Article 99
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 99
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1270) Article 100
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 100
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
(p. 1271) Article 101
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Article 101
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1272) Witness Clause
United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (1980)—Full Text, Part IV Final Provisions, Witness Clause
	Ingeborg Schwenzer, Pascal Hachem
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
I.  Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods as Amended by the Protocol Amending the Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods
	Introductory Note
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Preliminary Material
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods as Amended by the Protocol Amending the Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods
	Preamble
(p. 1274) Part I
	Substantive Provisions
		Article 1
		Article 2
		(p. 1275) Article 31
		Article 42
		Article 5
		Article 6
		Article 7
	The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period
		Article 8
		Article 9
		Article 10
		Article 11
		Article 12
	(p. 1277) Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period
		Article 13
		Article 14
		Article 15
		Article 16
		Article 17
		Article 18
		Article 19
		Article 20
		Article 21
	Modification of the Limitation Period by the Parties
		Article 22
	General Limit of the Limitation Period
		Article 23
	Consequences of the Expiration of the Limitation Period
		Article 24
		Article 25
		Article 26
		Article 27
	Calculation of the Period
		Article 28
		Article 29
	International Effect
		Article 30
Part II
	Implementation
		Article 31
		Article 32
		Article 33
Part III
	Declarations and Reservations
		Article 344
		Article 35
		Article 36
		(p. 1281) Article 36bis
		Article 376
		Article 38
		Article 39
		Article 40
Part IV
	Final Clauses
		Article 41
		Article 42
		Article 43
		Article 43 bis
		Article 43 ter
		Article 44
		Article 44 bis
		Article 45
		Article 45 bis
		Article 46
II.  Explanatory Note by the Uncitral Secretariat on the Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods and the Protocol Amending the Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods12
	Introduction
A.  Scope of Application
(p. 1285) B.  Duration and Commencement of Limitation Period
C.  Cessation and Extension of Limitation Period
D.  Overall Limit of Limitation Period
E.  Consequences of Expiration of Limitation Period
F.  Other Provisions and Final Clauses
	Footnotes:
Article 3
Article 34
Article 37
Introduction
I. 
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods 1974, Introduction
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II. 
	Footnotes:
Preamble
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods 1974, Preamble
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 1
	[Introductory provisions: subject-matter and definitions*]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 1: [Introductory provisions: subject-matter and definitions]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
II.  Factual scope of application
	1.  Basic principle (paragraph 1)
		(a)  The concept of limitation.
		(b)  Claims arising from, or relating to, a sales contract.
	2.  Exceptions (paragraph 2)
III.  Definitions (paragraph 3)
	1.  General comments
	2.  Selected definitions
		(a)  Parties to a sales contract (lit a).
		(b)  ‘Person’ (lit f).
		(c)  ‘Year’ (lit h).
	Footnotes:
Article 2
	[Definition of a contract of international sale]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 2: [Definition of a contract of international sale]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 3
	[Application of the Convention]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 3: [Application of the Convention]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Legislative history
II.  The provision in detail
	1.  Paragraph 1: requirements for application
		(a)  General comments.
		(b)  Reservation clause.
	2.  Paragraph 2: exclusion of application
	Footnotes:
(p. 1296) Article 4
	[Exclusion of certain sales and types of goods]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 4: [Exclusion of certain sales and types of goods]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 5
	[Exclusion of certain claims]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 5: [Exclusion of certain claims]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
II.  The provision in detail
	1.  Claims based upon death or personal injury (lit a)
	2.  Claims based on nuclear liability (lit b)
	3.  Claims based upon a lien (lit c)
	4.  Claims based upon a judgment or arbitral award (lit d)
	5.  Claims based upon an enforceable title (lit e)
	6.  Claims based upon a bill of exchange or a cheque (lit f)
	Footnotes:
Article 6
	[Mixed contracts]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 6: [Mixed contracts]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 7
	[Interpretation to promote uniformity]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Sphere of Application, Article 7: [Interpretation to promote uniformity]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 8
	[The length of the limitation period]
I.  Legislative history
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period, Article 8: [The length of the limitation period]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Standard period
	1.  General comments
	2.  Abridgement of limitation by way of a preclusive time limit
	Footnotes:
(p. 1301) Article 9
	[Basic rule on commencement of the period]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period, Article 9: [Basic rule on commencement of the period]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Paragraph 1: maturity of claim
II.  Paragraph 2: no postponement of commencement of the limitation period
	Footnotes:
Article 10
	[Special rules: breach; defect or non-conformity of the goods; fraud]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period, Article 10: [Special rules: breach; defect or non-conformity of the goods; fraud]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
II.  The provision in detail
	1.  Claims arising from a breach of contract
		(a)  Definition of a breach of contract.
		(b)  Commencement of the limitation period.
	2.  Claims arising from a defect or other lack of conformity
		(a)  Definition of a defect or other lack of conformity.
		(b)  Commencement of the limitation period.
			(aa)  Actual handover.
			(bb)  Refusal of tender.
	3.  Claims based on fraud
		(a)  Statutory definition of fraud.
		(b)  Commencement of the limitation period.
	Footnotes:
Article 11
	[Express undertaking]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period, Article 11: [Express undertaking]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
II.  The provision in detail
	1.  Period of the undertaking
	2.  Commencement of the limitation period
	Footnotes:
Article 12
	[Termination before performance is due; instalment contracts]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, The Duration and Commencement of the Limitation Period, Article 12: [Termination before performance is due; instalment contracts]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Termination of contract before performance is due (paragraph 2)
	1.  Preconditions
		(a)  General comments.
		(b)  Declaration of termination.
	2.  Commencement of the limitation period
(p. 1307) II.  Claims arising out of an instalment contract (paragraph 2)
	1.  Breach of contract in relation to a separate instalment
	2.  Termination of contract
	Footnotes:
Article 13
	[Judicial proceedings]
I.  Conditions for cessation of the limitation period
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 13: [Judicial proceedings]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	1.  General comments
	2.  Institution of judicial proceedings
	3.  Assertion of a claim in proceedings already instituted
(p. 1309) II.  Effects of instituting judicial proceedings
	Footnotes:
Article 14
	Arbitration
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 14: Arbitration
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
(p. 1310) II.  Date of initiation of arbitral proceedings
	Footnotes:
Article 15
	[Legal proceedings arising from death, bankruptcy or a similar occurrence]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 15: [Legal proceedings arising from death, bankruptcy or a similar occurrence]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Commencing legal proceedings to suspend the limitation period
II.  Priority of national laws
	Footnotes:
Article 16
	[Counterclaims]
I.  Filing a counterclaim
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 16: [Counterclaims]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	1.  General comments
	(p. 1312) 2.  Form
	3.  Connection
II.  Time of the limitation period’s cessation
	Footnotes:
Article 17
	[Proceedings not resulting in a decision on the merits of the claims]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 17: [Proceedings not resulting in a decision on the merits of the claims]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  No cessation of the limitation period (paragraph 1)
II.  Extension of time (paragraph 2)
	Footnotes:
(p. 1314) Article 18
	[Joint debtors; recourse actions]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 18: [Joint debtors; recourse actions]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Cessation in the case of joint and several liability (paragraph 1)
	1.  Outline of problem
	2.  Comparative law
	3.  Solution in the Convention
		(a)  General comments.
		(b)  Notification of the debtor.
II.  Cessation in the case of buyer’s recourse (paragraph 2)
III.  Extension of time (paragraph 3)168
	Footnotes:
Article 19
	[Recommencement of limitation period by service of notice]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 19: [Recommencement of limitation period by service of notice]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  History
II.  Cessation of the limitation period without instituting proceedings
	1.  Preconditions
	2.  Effects
	Footnotes:
Article 20
	[Acknowledgement]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 20: [Acknowledgement]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Preconditions
	1.  General rule: written form
	2.  Exception: conclusive acknowledgement
	3.  Acknowledgement before the limitation period’s expiration
II.  Effect of cessation
	Footnotes:
Article 21
	[Extension of the limitation period due to force majeure]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Cessation and Extension of the Limitation Period, Article 21: [Extension of the limitation period due to force majeure]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Preconditions for the limitation period’s extension
	1.  Cause of the prevention
		(a)  Preconditions.
		(b)  Examples.
	2.  Prevention from causing the limitation period to cease to run
II.  Mechanism of extending the limitation period
	Footnotes:
Article 22
	[Modification by the parties]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Modification of the Limitation Period by the Parties, Article 22: [Modification by the parties]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General rule: no modification of the limitation period
II.  Exceptions
	1.  General comments
	2.  Extension
	3.  Abridgement
	Footnotes:
Article 23
	[Maximum period]
I.  History
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, General Limit of the Limitation Period, Article 23: [Maximum period]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
II.  Maximum period
	Footnotes:
Article 24
	[Exception of limitation]
I.  History
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Consequences of the Expiration of the Limitation Period, Article 24: [Exception of limitation]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1325) II.  Plea of limitation
	1.  General comments
	2.  Waiver of limitation
	3.  Reservation according to Article 36
	Footnotes:
(p. 1326) Article 25
	[Consequences of the limitation; set-off]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Consequences of the Expiration of the Limitation Period, Article 25: [Consequences of the limitation; set-off]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Consequences of the limitation (paragraph 1)
II.  Set-off or defence with an expired claim (paragraph 2)
	1.  General comments
	2.  Preconditions of a set-off
	Footnotes:
Article 26
	[Performance of obligation after the limitation’s commencement]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Consequences of the Expiration of the Limitation Period, Article 26: [Performance of obligation after the limitation’s commencement]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 27
	[Interest]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Consequences of the Expiration of the Limitation Period, Article 27: [Interest]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 28
	[General rule]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Calculation of the Period, Article 28: [General rule]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  General comments
II.  Calculation of the period
	1.  End of period (paragraph 1)
	2.  Relevant place (paragraph 2)
	Footnotes:
Article 29
	[Effect of holiday]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, Calculation of the Period, Article 29: [Effect of holiday]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 30
	[Actions or circumstances to be given international effect]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part I Substantive Provisions, International Effect, Article 30: [Actions or circumstances to be given international effect]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
I.  Subject and history of the provision
II.  Preconditions of the international effect
	1.  Actions or circumstances maintaining the period
	2.  Notification of the debtor
III.  International effect
IV.  Relation to Article 3 Limitation Convention
	Footnotes:
Article 31
	[Federative states]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part II Implementation, Article 31: [Federative states]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 32
	[Federative states, proper law]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part II Implementation, Article 32: [Federative states, proper law]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1333) Article 33
	[Temporal scope]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part II Implementation, Article 33: [Temporal scope]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 34
	[Declaration limiting the application of the convention]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 34: [Declaration limiting the application of the convention]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 35
	[Declaration on application of the convention to actions for annulment]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 35: [Declaration on application of the convention to actions for annulment]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 36
	[Declaration on invocation of limitation]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 36: [Declaration on invocation of limitation]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1335) Article 36bis
	[Reservation on the Convention’s sphere of application]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 36bis: [Reservation on the Convention’s sphere of application]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 37
	[Relation to other international agreements]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 37: [Relation to other international agreements]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1336) Article 38
	[Declaration on the definition of the international sales contract]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 38: [Declaration on the definition of the international sales contract]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 39
	[Admission of reservations]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 39: [Admission of reservations]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 40
	[Preconditions of effect of a reservation declaration]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part III Declarations and Reservations, Article 40: [Preconditions of effect of a reservation declaration]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 41
	[Signature]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 41: [Signature]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1338) Article 42
	[Ratification]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 42: [Ratification]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 43
	[Accession]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 43: [Accession]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 43bis
	[Accession to the amended version]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 43bis: [Accession to the amended version]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 43ter
	[Accession to the amended version]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 43ter: [Accession to the amended version]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 44
	[Entry into force]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 44: [Entry into force]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 44bis
	[Simultaneous accession to both versions]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 44bis: [Simultaneous accession to both versions]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 45
	[Denunciation]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 45: [Denunciation]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Article 45bis
	[Denunciation of the 1980 Protocol]
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 45bis: [Denunciation of the 1980 Protocol]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	Footnotes:
Article 46
	[Authentic languages]
	Footnotes:
United Nations Convention on the Limitation Period in the International Sale of Goods (1974)—Full Text, Part IV Final Clauses, Article 46: [Authentic languages]
	Markus Müller-Chen
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
(p. 1343) Appendix I  Incoterms® 2010
EXW EX Works
Appendix I Incoterms® 2010
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
FCA Free Carrier
(p. 1350) CPT Carriage Paid to
(p. 1354) CIP Carriage and Insurance Paid to
DAT Delivered at Terminal
(p. 1362) DAP Delivered at Place
DDP Delivered Duty Paid
Rules for Sea and Inland Waterway Transport
FAS Free Alongside Ship
FOB Free on Board
CFR Cost and Freight
CIF Cost Insurance and Freight
(p. 1383) (p. 1384) (p. 1385) (p. 1386) (p. 1387) Appendix II  UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts 2010(*)
Preamble
Chapter 1— General Provisions
	Article 1.1
Appendix II UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts 2010
	Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
		Article 1.2
		Article 1.3
		Article 1.4
		(p. 1388) Article 1.5
		Article 1.6
		Article 1.7
		Article 1.8
		Article 1.9
		Article 1.10
		Article 1.11
		(p. 1389) Article 1.12
Chapter 2— Formation and Authority of Agents
	Section I:  Formation
		Article 2.1.1
		Article 2.1.2
		Article 2.1.3
		Article 2.1.4
		Article 2.1.5
		Article 2.1.6
		(p. 1390) Article 2.1.7
		Article 2.1.8
		Article 2.1.9
		Article 2.1.10
		Article 2.1.11
		Article 2.1.12
		Article 2.1.13
		Article 2.1.14
		Article 2.1.15
		Article 2.1.16
		Article 2.1.17
		Article 2.1.18
		Article 2.1.19
		Article 2.1.20
		Article 2.1.21
		(p. 1392) Article 2.1.22
	Section 2:  Authority of Agents
		Article 2.2.1
		Article 2.2.2
		Article 2.2.3
		Article 2.2.4
		Article 2.2.5
		(p. 1393) Article 2.2.6
		Article 2.2.7
		Article 2.2.8
		Article 2.2.9
		Article 2.2.10
Chapter 3— Validity
	Section I:  General Provisions
		Article 3.1.1
		Article 3.1.2
		(p. 1394) Article 3.1.3
		Article 3.1.4
	Section 2:  Grounds for Avoidance
		Article 3.2.1
		Article 3.2.2
		Article 3.2.3
		Article 3.2.4
		Article 3.2.5
		Article 3.2.6
		Article 3.2.7
		Article 3.2.8
		Article 3.2.9
		Article 3.2.10
		Article 3.2.11
		Article 3.2.12
		Article 3.2.13
		Article 3.2.14
		Article 3.2.15
		Article 3.2.16
		Article 3.2.17
	Section 3:  Illegality
		Article 3.3.1
		Article 3.3.2
Chapter 4— Interpretation
	Article 4.1
	Article 4.2
	Article 4.3
	Article 4.4
	Article 4.5
	Article 4.6
	(p. 1398) Article 4.7
	Article 4.8
Chapter 5— Content and Third Party Rights
	Section 1:  Content
		Article 5.1.1
		Article 5.1.2
		Article 5.1.3
		Article 5.1.4
		Article 5.1.5
		Article 5.1.6
		Article 5.1.7
		Article 5.1.8
		Article 5.1.9
	Section 2:  Third Party Rights
		Article 5.2.1
		Article 5.2.2
		Article 5.2.3
		(p. 1400) Article 5.2.4
		Article 5.2.5
		Article 5.2.6
	Section 3:  Conditions
		Article 5.3.1
		Article 5.3.2
		Article 5.3.3
		Article 5.3.4
		Article 5.3.5
Chapter 6— Performance
	Section I:  Performance in General
		Article 6.1.1
		Article 6.1.2
		Article 6.1.3
		Article 6.1.4
		Article 6.1.5
		Article 6.1.6
		Article 6.1.7
		Article 6.1.8
		Article 6.1.9
		Article 6.1.10
		Article 6.1.11
		Article 6.1.12
		(p. 1403) Article 6.1.13
		Article 6.1.14
		Article 6.1.15
		Article 6.1.16
		Article 6.1.17
	Section 2:  Hardship
		Article 6.2.1
		Article 6.2.2
		Article 6.2.3
Chapter 7— Non-performance
	Section 1:  Non-performance in General
		Article 7.1.1
		Article 7.1.2
		Article 7.1.3
		Article 7.1.4
		(p. 1405) Article 7.1.5
		Article 7.1.6
		Article 7.1.7
	Section 2:  Right to Performance
		Article 7.2.1
		Article 7.2.2
		Article 7.2.3
		Article 7.2.4
		Article 7.2.5
	Section 3:  Termination
		Article 7.3.1
		Article 7.3.2
		(p. 1407) Article 7.3.3
		Article 7.3.4
		Article 7.3.5
		Article 7.3.6
		Article 7.3.7
	Section 4:  Damages
		Article 7.4.1
		Article 7.4.2
		(p. 1408) Article 7.4.3
		Article 7.4.4
		Article 7.4.5
		Article 7.4.6
		Article 7.4.7
		Article 7.4.8
		Article 7.4.9
		Article 7.4.10
		Article 7.4.11
		Article 7.4.12
		Article 7.4.13
Chapter 8— Set-off
	Article 8.1
	Article 8.2
	Article 8.3
	(p. 1410) Article 8.4
	Article 8.5
Chapter 9— Assignment of Rights, Transfer of Obligations, Assignment of Contracts
	Section 1:  Assignment of Rights
		Article 9.1.1
		Article 9.1.2
		Article 9.1.3
		Article 9.1.4
		Article 9.1.5
		Article 9.1.6
		(p. 1411) Article 9.1.7
		Article 9.1.8
		Article 9.1.9
		Article 9.1.10
		Article 9.1.11
		Article 9.1.12
		Article 9.1.13
		Article 9.1.14
		Article 9.1.15
	Section 2:  Transfer of Obligations
		Article 9.2.1
		Article 9.2.2
		Article 9.2.3
		Article 9.2.4
		Article 9.2.5
		(p. 1413) Article 9.2.6
		Article 9.2.7
		Article 9.2.8
	Section 3:  Assignment of Contracts
		Article 9.3.1
		Article 9.3.2
		Article 9.3.3
		Article 9.3.4
		Article 9.3.5
		(p. 1414) Article 9.3.6
		Article 9.3.7
Chapter 10— Limitation Periods
	Article 10.1
	Article 10.2
	Article 10.3
	Article 10.4
	Article 10.5
	Article 10.6
	Article 10.7
	Article 10.8
	Article 10.9
	Article 10.10
	Article 10.11
Chapter 11— Plurality of Obligors and of Obligees
	Section 1:  Plurality of Obligors
		Article 11.1.1
		Article 11.1.2
		Article 11.1.3
		Article 11.1.4
		Article 11.1.5
		Article 11.1.6
		Article 11.1.7
		Article 11.1.8
		Article 11.1.9
		Article 11.1.10
		Article 11.1.11
		Article 11.1.12
		Article 11.1.13
	Section 2:  Plurality of Obligees
		Article 11.2.1
		Article 11.2.2
		(p. 1418) Article 11.2.3
		Article 11.2.4
	Footnotes:
(p. 1419) Bibliography
Bibliography
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
Index
	Sign in to an additional subscriber account
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
	From: Schlechtriem & Schwenzer: Commentary on the UN Convention on the International Sale of Goods (4th Edition)
	Edited By: Ingeborg Schwenzer
		(p. 1523) Index