Sandy Beach Morphodynamics: Form and Process

1 - Introduction to beach morphodynamics
	Chapter outline
	1.1 - Introduction
		1.1.1 - Chapter content
		1.1.2 - Emerging developments in the study of sandy beaches
	References
2 - Beach sand and its origins
	Chapter outline
	2.1 - Introduction
	2.2 - Brief history of provenance studies
	2.3 - Sources of beach sand
		2.3.1 - Fluvial sand supply
		2.3.2 - Production of sand by coastal erosion
		2.3.3 - Production of sand by seabed erosion
		2.3.4 - Biological production of carbonate sands
		2.3.5 - Artificial and nourished beaches
	2.4 - Methodological aspects
		2.4.1 - Sampling strategies and grain-size analysis
		2.4.2 - Hydraulics of beach sand
		2.4.3 - Grain size and beach slope relations
	2.5 - Conclusions and recommendations
	References
3 - Wave climates: deep water to shoaling zone
	Chapter outline
	3.1 - Introduction
	3.2 - Description of a sea state
	3.3 - Databases
		3.3.1 - Stereo-photography
		3.3.2 - Imaging radars
		3.3.3 - Laser altimetry
		3.3.4 - Radar altimetry
	3.4 - Long-term distribution of sea state parameters
	3.5 - Extreme value distribution of sea state parameters
	3.6 - Non-stationary wave climate
	3.7 - Wave atlas
	3.8 - Summary
	References
4 - Wave behaviour outside the surf zone
	Chapter outline
	4.1 - General introduction
	4.2 - Wave theories
		4.2.1 - Deep- and shallow-water linear waves
		4.2.2 - Dispersion relation, group speed and phase speed
		4.2.3 - Non-linear waves: Stokes, cnoidal and solitary wave theories
		4.2.4 - Concept of wave rays
	4.3 - Wave shoaling, refraction and diffraction
		4.3.1 - Wave shoaling
		4.3.2 - Wave refraction
		4.3.3 - Wave diffraction
		4.3.4 - Measurement and analysis of waves
			4.3.4.1 - Measurement
			4.3.4.2 - Analysis
	4.4 - Wave dissipation
		4.4.1 - In deep water (white-capping)
			4.4.1.1 - Theory and observations
			4.4.1.2 - Measurement techniques
		4.4.2 - Bottom friction
			4.4.2.1 - Theory
			4.4.2.2 - Measurement and analysis
	4.5 - Conclusions
	References
5 - Tidal modulation
	Chapter outline
	5.1 - Introduction
	5.2 - Tidal processes
		5.2.1 - Tidal range and impact on the inshore/breaker wave modulation
		5.2.2 - Tidal currents and their impact on inshore circulation
	5.3 - Beach morphodynamics
		5.3.1 - Effect of tides on beach morphology
		5.3.2 - Morphodynamic models of macrotidal beaches and the role of tidal modulation on the beach state
		5.3.3 - Tidal modulation of the RTR and beach type/states
	5.4 - Conclusions
	References
6 - Breaking waves
	Chapter outline
	6.1 - Introduction
	6.2 - Depth-induced wave breaking in the nearshore
		6.2.1 - The break-point location
		6.2.2 - Wave breaker types
		6.2.3 - Predicting wave breaking
	6.3 - Wave breaking in the surf zone
		6.3.1 - Measuring waves
		6.3.2 - Wave height decay
		6.3.3 - Individual wave behaviour
		6.3.4 - Breaker types
		6.3.5 - Wave speeds
		6.3.6 - Wave height distributions of broken waves
		6.3.7 - The fraction of broken waves
	6.4 - Modelling wave energy dissipation in the surf zone
		6.4.1 - Parametric wave energy dissipation models
		6.4.2 - Intermediate and shallow water models
	6.5 - Conclusions
	References
7 - The surf zone
	Chapter outline
	7.1 - What is the surf zone?
	7.2 - Radiation stress and wave set-up
		7.2.1 - Radiation stress
		7.2.2 - Applications of radiation stress: Wave set-up and set-down
	7.3 - Infragravity waves
		7.3.1 - What is an infragravity wave?
		7.3.2 - Wave reflection
		7.3.3 - Types of infragravity waves
			7.3.3.1 - Bound infragravity waves
			7.3.3.2 - Breakpoint-generated infragravity waves
			7.3.3.3 - Edge waves
	7.4 - Surf zone currents
		7.4.1 - Bed return flow
			7.4.1.1 - What goes in, must go out
			7.4.1.2 - Stress imbalances drive bed return flow
			7.4.1.3 - Sediment transport by bed return flow
		7.4.2 - Rip currents
		7.4.3 - Longshore currents
			7.4.3.1 - Longshore-directed radiation stress drives longshore currents
			7.4.3.2 - Predicting longshore currents on planar beaches
			7.4.3.3 - Longshore currents on barred beaches
			7.4.3.4 - Shear waves and tides modulate longshore currents
			7.4.3.5 - Shear waves and sediment transport
	7.5 - Summary
	References
8 - The swash zone
	Chapter outline
	8.1 - Introduction: definition of terms and chapter overview
	8.2 - Swash zone morphology
		8.2.1 - Beach face slope
		8.2.2 - Beach berms
		8.2.3 - Beach steps
		8.2.4 - Beach scarps
		8.2.5 - Sediment sorting in the swash zone
	8.3 - Shoreline kinematics and swash zone morphodynamics
		8.3.1 - Shoreline oscillations driven by standing waves and bores
		8.3.2 - Evolving swash spectral signatures under variable incident waves: swash and the beach-state model
	8.4 - Fluid dynamics, sediment transport and the swash zone profile
		8.4.1 - Swash motion
		8.4.2 - Influence of beach slope, wave frequency and wave amplitude
		8.4.3 - Kinematics
		8.4.4 - Models for bed shear stress, boundary layer and sediment transport
		8.4.5 - Equilibrium beach profile gradient in the swash zone
	8.5 - Swash as a component of coastal inundation
		8.5.1 - Wave run-up
		8.5.2 - Swash overtopping
	8.6 - Concluding remarks
	References
9 - Marine sediment transport
	Chapter outline
	9.1 - Introduction
		9.1.1 - Timescales of sediment transport
	9.2 - Sediment properties
		9.2.1 - Initiation of motion
		9.2.2 - Sediment fall velocity
	9.3 - Modes of sediment transport
		9.3.1 - Suspended load and the advection diffusion approach
		9.3.2 - Bedload transport
			9.3.2.1 - Shear approach to total bedload
			9.3.2.2 - Energetics approach to bedload (Bagnold, Bailard, Bowen line of models)
	9.4 - Alongshore and cross-shore sediment transport
		9.4.1 - Alongshore sediment transport
			9.4.1.1 - Estimating wave-driven alongshore sediment transport
		9.4.2 - Cross-shore sediment transport
			9.4.2.1 - Mechanisms of cross-shore sediment transport
	9.5 - The present state and future challenges in sediment transport modelling
	9.6 - Measuring the magnitude of sediment transport along sandy beaches
	9.7 - Conclusions and outlook
	References
10 - Aeolian (windblown) sand transport over beaches
	Chapter outline
	10.1 - Introduction
	10.2 - Fundamentals of aeolian sand transport
	10.3 - Aeolian sand transport models
	10.4 - Controls on aeolian sand transport on beaches
		10.4.1 - Regional wind climate and geomorphically effective sand transport events
		10.4.2 - Beach width and the ‘fetch effect’
		10.4.3 - Surface moisture interactions
		10.4.4 - Salt and biological crusts
		10.4.5 - Surface roughness elements and vegetation
		10.4.6 - Slope and topographic effects
	10.5 - Summary and conclusions
	References
11 - Rip currents
	Chapter outline
	11.1 - Introduction
	11.2 - Rip circulation
	11.3 - Rip types
		11.3.1 - Hydrodynamically controlled rip currents
		11.3.2 - Bathymetrically controlled rip currents
		11.3.3 - Boundary-controlled rip currents
		11.3.4 - Embayed-cellular rips and mega-rips
	11.4 - Spacing and morphology of channel rips
	11.5 - Sediment transport in channel rips
	11.6 - Morphodynamic evolution of rip systems
		11.6.1 - Straight open coasts
		11.6.2 - Embayed beaches
	11.7 - Role of rips in nearshore, beach and dune interaction
	11.8 - Rip forecasting and monitoring
	11.9 - Summary
	References
12 - From cusps to capes: self-organised shoreline shapes
	Chapter outline
	12.1 - Introduction
	12.2 - Beach cusps
	12.3 - Alongshore sandwaves
	12.4 - Cuspate capes
	12.5 - Discussion
	References
13 - Rhythmic patterns in the surfzone
	Chapter outline
	13.1 - Introduction
	13.2 - Patterns
		13.2.1 - Shore-parallel sandbars
		13.2.2 - Multiple sandbars
		13.2.3 - Crescentic sandbars
			13.2.3.1 - Observations of crescentic sandbar patterns and behaviours
			13.2.3.2 - Physical mechanisms and modelling of crescentic sandbars
		13.2.4 - Transverse sandbars
	13.3 - Summary and perspectives
	References
14 - Mixed sand and gravel beaches
	Chapter outline
	14.1 - Introduction
		14.1.1 - Location and main characteristics
		14.1.2 - Brief historical review
		14.1.3 - The role of geological factors
		14.1.4 - Objectives and scope
	14.2 - Characteristics of MSGB
		14.2.1 - Steps
		14.2.2 - Berms
		14.2.3 - Cusps
	14.3 - Hydrodynamics of MSGB under short and long waves
		14.3.1 - Swash: wave run-up and set-up
		14.3.2 - Overtopping and overwashing
		14.3.3 - The role of wave reflection
		14.3.4 - Groundwater flows: infiltration and exfiltration
	14.4 - Morphodynamics of MSGB: sediment erosion and accumulation under multiple spatial and temporal scales
		14.4.1 - Longshore sediment transport on MSGB
		14.4.2 - Cross-shore sediment transport at MSGB
		14.4.3 - Morphodynamics of storms and natural recovery: evidence from MSGB on the Alborán Sea
	14.5 - Discussion and conclusions
		14.5.1 - Morphodynamic differences between sandy beaches and MSGB
		14.5.2 - Summary and open research questions
	References
15 - Sandy beaches in estuaries and bays
	Chapter outline
	15.1 - Definition of bay and estuary beaches (BEBs)
	15.2 - Geological context
	15.3 - Oceanographic context
		15.3.1 - Ocean waves
		15.3.2 - Infragravity waves
		15.3.3 - Locally generated waves
		15.3.4 - Tidal and fluvial currents
	15.4 - Other terms used for BEBs
	15.5 - The morphodynamics of sandy beaches in estuaries and bays
		15.5.1 - Review
		15.5.2 - Summary of BEB morphodynamic characteristics
	15.6 - A case study from Botany Bay, SE Australia
	15.7 - Emerging concepts and concluding remarks
	Acknowledgements
	References
16 - Wave-dominated, tide-modified and tide-dominated continuum
	Chapter outline
	16.1 - Introduction
	16.2 - Beach classifications
	16.3 - Beach types and states
		16.3.1 - Wave-dominated beaches
		16.3.2 - Embayed beaches
		16.3.3 - Gravel beaches
		16.3.4 - Tide-modified beaches
		16.3.5 - Tide-dominated beaches
		16.3.6 - Beaches fronted by rock flats and reef flats
	16.4 - Global and regional controls on beach morphodynamics
	16.5 - Conclusion
	References
17 - Shallow water wave modelling in the nearshore (SWAN)
	Chapter outline
	17.1 - The need for wave models
		17.1.1 - Classification of wave models
		17.1.2 - The new era of morphodynamic wave models
	17.2 - Spectral wave models: WAM, WWIII and SWAN
		17.2.1 - The use of spectral wave models: from global to local hindcast
	17.3 - The SWAN wave model for nearshore environments
		17.3.1 - Action balance equation and propagation terms
		17.3.2 - Physical processes included in SWAN: source terms
			17.3.2.1 - Wind input term
			17.3.2.2 - Non-linear interactions: triads and quadruplets
			17.3.2.3 - Dissipation
			17.3.2.4 - Refraction and diffraction
			17.3.2.5 - Other processes
	17.4 - Running a SWAN nearshore wave simulation
		17.4.1 - Spatial input grids
			17.4.1.1 - Bathymetry
			17.4.1.2 - Wind field, water levels and bottom friction
		17.4.2 - Computational grid and boundary conditions
			17.4.2.1 - Boundary conditions
		17.4.3 - Outputs grids
		17.4.4 - Calibration and validation
	17.5 - Summary
	References
18 - Reflective–dissipative continuum
	Chapter outline
	18.1 - Introduction
	18.2 - Antecedents to beach morphological and temporal behaviour
		18.2.1 - Two-dimensional and three-dimensional beach change approaches
		18.2.2 - The Australian wave-dominated Beach Model (ABM) and other beach morphological parameterisations
		18.2.3 - Methods and techniques for monitoring-determining beach state and morphology
	18.3 - The reflective–dissipative continuum
		18.3.1 - Waves and sediment characteristics related to beach classification
		18.3.2 - Dissipative beaches
		18.3.3 - Intermediate beaches
		18.3.4 - Reflective beaches
	18.4 - The beach state and/or modal state classification in time and space
		18.4.1 - Sequential changes in beach state
		18.4.2 - The beach accretion cycle and related morphological configuration
		18.4.3 - The beach erosion cycle and the related morphological configuration
		18.4.4 - Beach cycle drivers and the antecedent topography
	18.5 - Conclusions
	References
19 - Shoreline change analysis
	Chapter outline
	19.1 - Introduction
	19.2 - Generation of a shoreline database
		19.2.1 - The shoreline
		19.2.2 - Shorelines on historical mapping
		19.2.3 - Shoreline indicators
		19.2.4 - Shorelines from satellite imagery
		19.2.5 - Alternative considerations
	19.3 - Analytical approach
		19.3.1 - Geospatial analysis
		19.3.2 - Shoreline change calculations
		19.3.3 - Quantification of error and uncertainty
		19.3.4 - Multivariate approaches
	19.4 - Summary
	References
20 - Seasonal imprint on beach morphodynamics
	Chapter outline
	20.1 - Introduction
	20.2 - Seasonality: definition and genesis
	20.3 - Morphological proxies to assess seasonality
		20.3.1 - Beach erosion
		20.3.2 - Beach accretion
		20.3.3 - Modelling beach behaviour
	20.4 - Seasonal beach imprints
		20.4.1 - Imprints on morphology
		20.4.2 - Imprints on hydro-sedimentary and aeolian processes
	20.5 - Conclusions
	References
21 - Long-term shoreline morphodynamics: processes and preservation of environmental signals
	Chapter outline
	21.1 - Progradational coastal systems
	21.2 - Development of regressive records of paleo-environmental change
		21.2.1 - Formation of beach and foredune ridges and ridge sets
		21.2.2 - Growth of beach- and foredune-ridge plains and preservation of paleo-environmental signals
		21.2.3 - Controls on shoreline orientation and growth
		21.2.4 - Autogenic and allogenic signals
	21.3 - The coastal record of paleo-environmental change: global examples
		21.3.1 - Sea-level change
		21.3.2 - Sediment fluxes
		21.3.3 - Wind and wave climate
		21.3.4 - Events
		21.3.5 - Secular changes
	21.4 - Challenges and recent advances in using the long-term shoreline-change record
		21.4.1 - Limitations of the progradational coastal archive
		21.4.2 - Recommendations for producing paleo-environmental archives from records of long-term shoreline change
		21.4.3 - Integrating quantitative and process-based understanding of coastal morphodynamics
	21.5 - Future outlook for records of long-term shoreline morphodynamics
	References
22 - Extreme events: impact and recovery
	Chapter outline
	22.1 - Introduction
	22.2 - Definitions
		22.2.1 - Extreme events
		22.2.2 - Beach and dune erosion
		22.2.3 - Recovery
	22.3 - Characterisation of storm impact and recovery
		22.3.1 - Storm impacts
			22.3.1.1 - Storm impact regimes
			22.3.1.2 - Localised three-dimensional impacts
		22.3.2 - Beach and dune recovery
	22.4 - Example observations from Europe and Australia
		22.4.1 - Impact and recovery from the 2013–14 winter along the Atlantic coast of Europe
		22.4.2 - Impact and recovery from the 2016 east coast low in SE Australia
	22.5 - Future perspectives and knowledge gaps
	References
23 - Headland bypassing and overpassing: form, processes and applications
	Chapter outline
	23.1 - Definitions and literature review
	23.2 - Major controls and driving forces
		23.2.1 - Geomorphological constraints
		23.2.2 - Sediment characteristics and availability
		23.2.3 - Physical forcing
			23.2.3.1 - Beach connectivity, bypassing index and headland bypassing rate equation
	23.3 - Classification and conceptual models
		23.3.1 - Headland overpassing
		23.3.2 - Headland bypassing swash-surf zone
		23.3.3 - Headland bypassing surfzone-nearshore
		23.3.4 - Headland bypassing cross embayment
	23.4 - Investigating HB&O
		23.4.1 - Visual observation
		23.4.2 - Remote-sensing
		23.4.3 - Sediment-based methods
			23.4.3.1 - Surface sediment samples and cores
			23.4.3.2 - Sediment trapping
			23.4.3.3 - Sediment tracing
		23.4.4 - Morphological measurements
			23.4.4.1 - Sub-bottom and GPR profilers
		23.4.5 - Instrumentation
		23.4.6 - Numerical modelling
		23.4.7 - Advantages and disadvantages of methods
	23.5 - HB&O and building with nature concept
	23.6 - Summary
	Further Reading
	References
24 - 
Mechanisms and timescales of beach rotation
	Chapter outline
	24.1 - Introduction
	24.2 - Drivers and mechanisms of beach rotation
		24.2.1 - Longshore coherent response
		24.2.2 - Combined cross-shore and longshore response
		24.2.3 - Nearshore morphological dynamics
	24.3 - Timescales of beach rotation
		24.3.1 - Short-term
		24.3.2 - Medium-term
		24.3.3 - Long-term
	24.4 - Beach rotation in the context of global change and human action
		24.4.1 - Sea-level rise
		24.4.2 - Wave climate
		24.4.3 - Coastal modification
	24.5 - Summary
	Further Readings
	References
25 - Coastal sediment compartments, wave climate and centennial-scale sediment budget
	Chapter outline
	25.1 - Introduction
	25.2 - Coastal morphology, sediment transport paths and compartmentalisation
	25.3 - Wave climate and the sediment valve concept
	25.4 - Sediment budget determination
	25.5 - Case study on centennial scale sediment budget analysis
		25.5.1 - Historical bathymetric surveys and shoreline maps
		25.5.2 - Geohistorical morpho-sedimentary archive
		25.5.3 - Data-model evaluation of sand transport
	25.6 - Outstanding research problems on defining coastal stability and projecting future coasts
	Acknowledgements
	References
26 - Global beach database
	Chapter outline
	26.1 - Introduction
	26.2 - Remote sensing techniques and validation
		26.2.1 - Sandy beach detection
		26.2.2 - Shoreline detection methods
		26.2.3 - Accuracy and limitations
			26.2.3.1 - Accuracy
			26.2.3.2 - Limitations
	26.3 - Global beach database
		26.3.1 - Global occurrence of sandy beaches
		26.3.2 - Global sandy beach dynamics
	26.4 - Hotspots of retreating and prograding beaches
	26.5 - Quantifying local scale changes
	26.6 - Outlook
	References
27 - Beach and nearshore monitoring techniques
	Chapter outline
	27.1 - Introduction
	27.2 - Monitoring design
		27.2.1 - Why monitoring?
		27.2.2 - Monitoring design
			27.2.2.1 - Monitoring design principles
			27.2.2.2 - Spatial and temporal scales
			27.2.2.3 - Spatial and temporal resolutions
			27.2.2.4 - Budget
		27.2.3 - Coastal measurements in context: multidisciplinary monitoring
		27.2.4 - Common pitfalls and how to avoid them
	27.3 - Monitoring equipment and parameters
		27.3.1 - In situ
			1 - Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
			2 - Wave buoy
			3 - Pressure transducer
			4 - Drifters/drogues
			5 - Optical backscatter sensor (OBS)
			Acoustic instruments
			6,7 - Single-beam echosounder/underwater altimeter
			8 - Multibeam echosounder
			9 - Acoustic Doppler velocimeter (ADV)
			10 - Acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP)
			11 - Acoustic backscatter sensor (ABS)
		27.3.2 - Remote sensing
			12 - Laser scanning
			13 - Photography
			14 - Video monitoring
			15 - Radar
		27.3.3 - Samplers
			16 - Water sampler
			Sediment traps
			17 - Underwater
			18 - Above water
			19 - Grab
			20 - Core
		27.3.4 - Particle size analysis
			27.3.4.1 - Calipers
			27.3.4.2 - Sieve
			27.3.4.3 - Laser granulometer
	27.4 - Data management
		27.4.1 - Role of data management
		27.4.2 - Good data
		27.4.3 - Data management plan
		27.4.4 - Data management system
		27.4.5 - Sharing data
		27.4.6 - Publishing data
	27.5 - Future perspective
	Acknowledgements
	References
28 - Machine learning and coastal processes
	Chapter outline
	28.1 - Introduction
		28.1.1 - What is ‘machine learning’?
		28.1.2 - Differences between machine learning and other modelling approaches
	28.2 - Machine learning for modelling coastal processes
		28.2.1 - k-nearest neighbours
		28.2.2 - Decision trees and random forests
		28.2.3 - Bayesian networks
		28.2.4 - Neural networks
		28.2.5 - Support vector machines
		28.2.6 - Other machine learning algorithms
	28.3 - Machine learning guidelines
		28.3.1 - Typical machine learning workflow and semantics
		28.3.2 - Tools for machine learning
		28.3.3 - Preparing data, feature engineering and feature selection
		28.3.4 - Model selection
		28.3.5 - Model evaluation
		28.3.6 - Example application
	28.4 - The future of machine learning in coastal processes
	References
29 - Future challenges in beach management as contested spaces
	Chapter outline
	29.1 - Introduction
	29.2 - Beach dynamics and coastal management
	29.3 - Shoreline boundary shifts
	29.4 - Managing the challenges of landward translation of beaches
	29.5 - Beach management in the future—some examples
	29.6 - Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References