Saffron: Science, Technology and Health

Front Cover
Saffron: Science, Technology and Health
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
I. Cultural and historical aspects of saffron
	1 Saffron and folklore
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 Aspects of folklore in planting, growing, and harvesting of saffron
		1.3 Applications of saffron in folklore
			1.3.1 Saffron and food
			1.3.2 Saffron in prayers, charms, and talismans
			1.3.3 Other uses of saffron
			1.3.4 Popular medicine
		1.4 Saffron in popular literature
			1.4.1 Do-bayti
			1.4.2 Riddles
			1.4.3 Stories and humor
		1.5 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	2 Saffron and religion
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Saffron in Indian religions
			2.2.1 Saffron symbols
			2.2.2 Saffron in Tantara rites
			2.2.3 Saffron for laundering Gods
			2.2.4 Saffron color in India’s flag
			2.2.5 Saffron, the color of religious costumes
			2.2.6 Saffron celebrations and festivals
			2.2.7 Saffron color in Buddhism
		2.3 Semitic religions
			2.3.1 Judaism
			2.3.2 Islam
		2.4 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	3 Saffron in the ancient history of Iran
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Saffron in Iran before Islam
			3.2.1 Use of saffron before Islam
			3.2.2 Use of saffron in ancient Iran
				3.2.2.1 Saffron for food applications
				3.2.2.2 Medical and pharmaceutical uses
				3.2.2.3 Cosmetic use
				3.2.2.4 Ritual uses
					3.2.2.4.1 Burning and incensing saffron
					3.2.2.4.2 Donating and gifting saffron
					3.2.2.4.3 Decoration of steeds with saffron
					3.2.2.4.4 Drinking saffron syrup
					3.2.2.4.5 Magical uses
					3.2.2.4.6 Writing uses
					3.2.2.4.7 Applications of saffron in astronomy and astrology
		3.3 Saffron in Iran after Islam
			3.3.1 Cultivation of saffron
			3.3.2 Saffron as a commodity
			3.3.3 Applications of saffron in Iranian daily life
				3.3.3.1 Odor and aroma
				3.3.3.2 Dyeing
				3.3.3.3 Food
		3.4 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
II. Safron production
	4 Evolution and botany of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and allied species
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 Crocus
		4.3 Contractile roots
		4.4 Corm
		4.5 Iridaceae
		4.6 Saffron evolution and phylogeny
		4.7 Pollination and seed growth
		4.8 Sexual reproduction
		4.9 Cultivated saffron (Crocus sativus L.)
		4.10 Wild saffron (C. cartwrightianus Herbert)
		4.11 Crocus palasii subsp. Haussknechtii
		4.12 Crocus oreocreticus Burtt
		4.13 Crocus Thomasii Tenore
		4.14 Crocus hadriaticus
		4.15 Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
		Further reading
	5 Soil conditions for sustainable saffron production
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Soil conditions
		5.3 Soil texture
		5.4 Soil nutrient content
		5.5 Saffron nitrogen requirement
		5.6 Nitrogen use efficiency in saffron
		5.7 Conclusion
		References
	6 Saffron water requirements
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Crop coefficients and potential evapotranspiration
		6.3 Irrigation scheduling
			6.3.1 Before corm lifting
			6.3.2 After corm planting
			6.3.3 Preflowering irrigation in autumn
			6.3.4 During vegetative growth
			6.3.5 Summer irrigation
		6.4 Rainfed saffron production
		6.5 Factors affecting water requirements
		6.6 Irrigation methods
		6.7 Water quality
			6.7.1 Water quality parameters
			6.7.2 Salt stress in saffron
		6.8 Water-use efficiency and productivity
		6.9 Physiological responses of saffron to water stress
		6.10 Beneficial water-related approaches for saffron production
		6.11 Saffron response to flooding
		6.12 Indigenous irrigation knowledge
		6.13 Conclusion
		References
	7 Saffron “seed”, the corm
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Corm botanical criteria
			7.2.1 Mother and daughter corms
			7.2.2 Main and lateral buds
			7.2.3 Root system
			7.2.4 Developmental stages and phonological description
			7.2.5 Corm nutrient content
			7.2.6 Field age effect on corm production
		7.3 Agronomical practices
			7.3.1 Corm lifting time and storage
			7.3.2 Planting time
			7.3.3 Planting depth
			7.3.4 Row spacing, corm density
			7.3.5 Corm size/weight
			7.3.6 Corm size classification
			7.3.7 Planting beds
				7.3.7.1 Application of organic and chemical fertilizers
				7.3.7.2 Crop residue
				7.3.7.3 Intercropping
				7.3.7.4 Planting under controlled environment
			7.3.8 Application of hormones
		7.4 Corm and climate change
		7.5 Conclusion
		References
	8 Ecophysiology of saffron
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Climatic factors for crop production
			8.2.1 Temperature
			8.2.2 Precipitation
		8.3 Lifecycle
			8.3.1 Flowering phase
			8.3.2 Vegetative phase
			8.3.3 Production of replacement corms
			8.3.4 Dormant phase
		8.4 Growth parameters
			8.4.1 Leaf area index
			8.4.2 Crop growth rate
			8.4.3 Relative growth rate
			8.4.4 Net assimilate rate
			8.4.5 Leaf area ratio
			8.4.6 Leaf weight ratio
			8.4.7 Corms
			8.4.8 Whole plant
			8.4.9 Source and sink relationship in the growth organs
		8.5 Effects of environmental changes on the quality of saffron
		8.6 Yield determination
		8.7 Conclusion
		References
	9 Advances in modeling saffron growth and development at different scales
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Statistical models
			9.2.1 The basics
			9.2.2 Crop-weather models for saffron yield prediction
		9.3 Artificial neural networks
			9.3.1 Artificial neural networks, an overview
			9.3.2 Application of artificial neural networks for saffron
		9.4 Application of response surface modeling in saffron production
			9.4.1 Statistical background
			9.4.2 Central composite designs
			9.4.3 Application
		9.5 Dynamic simulation models
			9.5.1 Advances in development of simulation models for saffron
			9.5.2 Radiation-based model for saffron growth
				9.5.2.1 Structure of a radiation-based model
				9.5.2.2 Leaf growth and senescence
				9.5.2.3 Radiation absorption and dry matter production
				9.5.2.4 Inputs and parameters of the model
		9.6 Modeling saffron development and flowering
			9.6.1 Hypothetical model of saffron development
			9.6.2 Developmental responses in crop species
			9.6.3 Structure of the model
				9.6.3.1 Flower initiation
				9.6.3.2 Flower emergence
			9.6.4 Simulation of saffron response to climate change
				9.6.4.1 General impacts of global warming
				9.6.4.2 Effects of climate change on development rate
				9.6.4.3 Effects of climate change on length of flowering period
		9.7 Land suitability and zoning methodology for saffron
			9.7.1 Objectives and methods of zoning
			9.7.2 Application of zoning schemes to saffron
		9.8 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	10 Saffron crop protection
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Weeds
			10.2.1 Weed and saffron ecophysiology
			10.2.2 Weed presence in saffron fields and possibility of weed control
			10.2.3 Critical period of weed control
			10.2.4 Dominant weeds in saffron fields
				10.2.4.1 Annual winter weeds
				10.2.4.2 Annual summer weeds
				10.2.4.3 Perennials
			10.2.5 Weed management
				10.2.5.1 Monitoring
				10.2.5.2 Prevention
				10.2.5.3 Mechanical control
				10.2.5.4 Soil solarization
				10.2.5.5 Mix cropping
				10.2.5.6 Cover crops
				10.2.5.7 Chemical control (Herbicides)
		10.3 Pests
			10.3.1 Mites (Acari) and Insects (Insecta)
				10.3.1.1 Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede, Acari: Rhizoglyphidae
					10.3.1.1.1 Morphology and biology
					10.3.1.1.2 Types of damage
					10.3.1.1.3 Distribution of Rhizoglyphus robini mites
					10.3.1.1.4 Factors causing Rhizoglyphus robini to be problematic
					10.3.1.1.5 Technical strategies to prevent and control saffron mites
					10.3.1.1.6 Prevention and control of mites in old farms
					10.3.1.1.7 Prevention and control of mites prior to corms planting
				10.3.1.2 Harmful rodents in saffron fields
					10.3.1.2.1 The short-tailed bandicoot rat (Nesokia indica Gray)
					10.3.1.2.2 The southern mole vole (Ellobius fuscocapillus Blyth)
					10.3.1.2.3 Preventing and controlling rats in saffron fields
		10.4 Pathogens
			10.4.1 The fungal agents of saffron corm rot
			10.4.2 Fusarium rottings of the saffron corm
			10.4.3 Nematodes
			10.4.4 The saffron pathogenic bacteria
			10.4.5 Saffron viruses
		10.5 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	11 Mechanization of saffron production
		11.1 Introduction
			11.1.1 The role of mechanization in agricultural development
			11.1.2 Economic advantages of saffron mechanization
		11.2 Machines for corm production
			11.2.1 Physical properties of saffron corms
			11.2.2 Corm digging
			11.2.3 Corm sorting
		11.3 Tillage
			11.3.1 Bed preparation for corm planting
			11.3.2 Crust breaking
		11.4 Corm planting
			11.4.1 Planting patterns
			11.4.2 Traditional planting methods
			11.4.3 Automatic planting machines
		11.5 Harvesting saffron flowers
			11.5.1 Traditional method of harvesting saffron flowers
			11.5.2 Invented picker machines
		11.6 Saffron stigma separation
			11.6.1 Physical properties of saffron flowers
			11.6.2 Traditional stigma–flower separation method
			11.6.3 Invented separators
		11.7 Conclusion
		References
	12 Emerging innovation in saffron production
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Why is innovation needed?
		12.3 Production under controlled environments
			12.3.1 Soilless beds
				12.3.1.1 Hydroponics and aeroponics
			12.3.2 Growth chambers
			12.3.3 In vitro cultivation
		12.4 Forced flowering
		12.5 Nonconventional breeding techniques
		12.6 Application of hormones
		12.7 Production in inadequate climates
		12.8 Organic production
		12.9 Mechanization
		12.10 Smart farming
		12.11 Saffron as feed additive
		12.12 Saffron byproducts
		12.13 e-commerce
		12.14 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
III. Genetics and biotechnology of saffron
	13 Utilizing O-mics technologies for saffron valorization
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Analysis of variation in saffron germplasm
		13.3 Epigenetics stability
		13.4 Detection of adulteration and DNA-based traceability
		13.5 Perspectives
		Acknowledgements
		References
	14 Tissue and cell culture of saffron
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Tissue culture of monocotyledons
		14.3 Micropropagation of saffron
			14.3.1 Explant preparation
			14.3.2 Propagation
			14.3.3 Acclimation
		14.4 Callus and cell culture
		14.5 Direct organogenesis
			14.5.1 Generating adventitious shoots
			14.5.2 Microcorm production
		14.6 Somatic embryogenesis
		14.7 Protoplast culture
		14.8 Stigma-like structure
		14.9 Conclusion
		References
	15 Molecular biology of Crocus sativus
		15.1 Introduction
		15.2 Flower development
		15.3 Gametogenesis and interspecific hybridization
		15.4 Secondary metabolites
			15.4.1 Carotenoid biosynthesis in plants
			15.4.2 Carotenoid biosynthesis in saffron
			15.4.3 Apocarotenoid biosynthesis
			15.4.4 Crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal
			15.4.5 Genetic regulation of carotenoids biosynthesis
		15.5 Production of saffron metabolites in microorganisms
		15.6 Saffron–microbe interactions
		15.7 Molecular response to abiotic stresses
		15.8 Conclusion
		References
IV. Saffron processing
	16 Bioactive ingredients of saffron: extraction, analysis, applications
		16.1 Introduction
			16.1.1 International classification of saffron stigmas
			16.1.2 Iranian trade categories
		16.2 Saffron drying methods
		16.3 Extraction of saffron bioactive components
			16.3.1 Conventional extraction techniques
				16.3.1.1 Maceration
				16.3.1.2 Soxhlet extraction
				16.3.1.3 Hydrodistillation
			16.3.2 Novel extraction methods
				16.3.2.1 Supercritical fluid extraction
				16.3.2.2 High pressure extraction
				16.3.2.3 Ultrafiltration
				16.3.2.4 Microextraction methods
				16.3.2.5 Solid-phase microextraction
				16.3.2.6 Stir-bar sorptive extraction
				16.3.2.7 Dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction
		16.4 Characterization of saffron bioactive compounds
			16.4.1 UV-Vis spectrophotometry
			16.4.2 High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
			16.4.3 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS)
			16.4.4 Electronic nose technique
		16.5 Applications of saffron bioactive ingredients: from prehistory up to 21st century
			16.5.1 Food industry
			16.5.2 Pharmaceutical industry
			16.5.3 Cosmetics and other sectors
		16.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
	17 Dehydration of saffron stigmas
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Drying methods
		17.3 Traditional methods
		17.4 Artificial drying methods
		17.5 Hybrid photovoltaic–thermal solar dryer
		17.6 Infrared thin-layer drying
		17.7 Freeze drying
		17.8 Microwave drying
		17.9 Effects of drying on color, aroma, and taste
		17.10 Conclusion
		References
	18 Saffron packaging
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Saffron packaging
		18.3 Paper and paperboard
		18.4 Aluminum foil
		18.5 Glass
		18.6 Low-density polyethylene
		18.7 High-density polyethylene
		18.8 Modified atmosphere packaging
		18.9 Nanosilver composite antimicrobial packaging
		18.10 Edible and biodegradable films
		18.11 Conclusion
		References
	19 Assessment and monitoring of saffron microbiological criteria
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Microbial critical point in saffron
			19.2.1 Microbiological analysis
				19.2.1.1 Classical culturing method
				19.2.1.2 Rapid assessment by molecular analysis
		19.3 Monitoring harvesting of saffron flowers
		19.4 Monitoring transportation of saffron flowers
		19.5 Microbial decontamination of saffron by different postharvest processes
			19.5.1 Effect of drying processes on microbiological quality of dried stigma
				19.5.1.1 Traditional drying
				19.5.1.2 Artificial drying
				19.5.1.3 Freeze-drying process
			19.5.2 Effect of cold plasma process on microbiological quality of dried stigma
			19.5.3 Effect of ozone treatment on microbiological quality of dried stigma
			19.5.4 Effect of irradiation treatment on microbiological quality of dried stigma
				19.5.4.1 Microwave treatment
				19.5.4.2 Electron beam and gamma irradiation treatment
			19.5.5 Infrared irradiation treatment
		19.6 Saffron packaging
			19.6.1 Modified atmosphere packing
		19.7 Effect of antibacterial packaging on microbiological quality of dried stigma
		19.8 Effect of Hurdle technology on microbiological quality of dried stigma
		19.9 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	20 Saffron adulteration
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Detecting adulteration
			20.2.1 Chromatographic techniques
			20.2.2 Infrared spectroscopy
			20.2.3 1H nuclear magnetic resonance
			20.2.4 Molecular techniques
			20.2.5 Electronic nose
		20.3 Conclusion
		References
V. Economy and trade of saffron
	21 Economic analysis of saffron production
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 World’s main exporters of saffron
		21.3 Price of saffron
		21.4 Saffron production around the world
			21.4.1 Iran
			21.4.2 India
			21.4.3 Greece
			21.4.4 Spain
			21.4.5 Afghanistan
			21.4.6 Summary
		21.5 Production function in economics
			21.5.1 Production function of saffron
		21.6 Economic productivity of saffron
			21.6.1 Water productivity of saffron
			21.6.2 Labor productivity of saffron
			21.6.3 Land productivity of saffron
		21.7 Economic performance of saffron
			21.7.1 Return on investment
			21.7.2 Ratio of return to cost
		21.8 Efficiency
			21.8.1 Energy use efficiency
				21.8.1.1 Energy use efficiency of saffron cultivation
				21.8.1.2 Economic efficiency
					21.8.1.2.1 Economic efficiency of saffron cultivation
		21.9 Economic comparative advantage
			21.9.1 Revealed comparative advantage
			21.9.2 Policy analysis matrix
			21.9.3 Nominal protection coefficient
			21.9.4 Effective protection coefficient
			21.9.5 The domestic resource cost
			21.9.6 Based on unit costs
		21.10 Some economic advantages of saffron production
		21.11 Conclusion
		References
	22 Saffron marketing: challenges and opportunities
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Problems of exporting and marketing of saffron
		22.3 Marketing concepts in the saffron industry
		22.4 Marketing management tasks for saffron marketing
		22.5 Conclusion
		References
	23 Environmental economic analysis of saffron production
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Estimation of potential environmental impacts by lifecycle assessment
			23.2.1 Global warming potential
			23.2.2 Acidification potential
			23.2.3 Aquatic eutrophication potential
			23.2.4 Terrestrial eutrophication potential
			23.2.5 Aggregated environmental indicator (EcoX)
		23.3 Ecological economic analysis of energy use
			23.3.1 Ecological energy indicators
			23.3.2 Ecological analysis of energy input
			23.3.3 Energy economic indicators
		23.4 Carbon footprint
		23.5 Ecosystem functions and services
			23.5.1 Valuation of the ecosystem function
			23.5.2 Ecosystem services and impacts from agriculture
			23.5.3 Ecosystem services
			23.5.4 Environmental impacts
		23.6 Green policy analysis matrix of saffron
		23.7 Conclusion
		References
VI. Saffron and health
	24 Saffron in Persian traditional medicine
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 A short history of using saffron in traditional medicine
		24.3 A brief survey on principles of Persian medicine focusing on pharmacological aspects
			24.3.1 Temperament
			24.3.2 Pharmacotherapy
			24.3.3 Temperament of drugs and medicines
				24.3.3.1 Normal drugs
				24.3.3.2 Warm and cold drugs
				24.3.3.3 Classification of drugs based on temperament
		24.4 Origin and history of the word saffron
		24.5 History of saffron usage in Persian civilization
		24.6 Medical properties of saffron
			24.6.1 Botanical aspects
			24.6.2 The nature and matter of saffron
			24.6.3 Temperament and general properties
			24.6.4 Medicinal uses of saffron
			24.6.5 Toxicity and adverse effects
			24.6.6 Quality assessment
		24.7 Conclusion
		References
	25 Antiinflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
			25.2.1 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron extracts
			25.2.2 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron petals
				25.2.2.1 Kaempferol
			25.2.3 Antiinflammatory effects of saffron derivatives
				25.2.3.1 Crocin
				25.2.3.2 Crocetin
				25.2.3.3 Safranal
		25.3 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron and its derivatives
			25.3.1 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron extracts
			25.3.2 Immunomodulatory effects of saffron derivatives
				25.3.2.1 Immunomodulatory effects of crocin
				25.3.2.2 Immunomodulatory effects of crocetin
				25.3.2.3 Immunomodulatory effects of safranal
		25.4 Conclusion
		References
		Further reading
	26 Effectiveness of saffron on memory function, learning ability, and epilepsy
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 In vitro and preclinical studies
			26.2.1 Memory and learning skills
			26.2.2 Oxidative stress
			26.2.3 Alzheimer’s disease
			26.2.4 Seizure
		26.3 Clinical studies
		26.4 Conclusion
		References
	27 Antidepressant and antianxiety properties of saffron
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Nervous system
		27.3 Depression and anxiety
			27.3.1 Pathophysiology of depression and anxiety
			27.3.2 Epidemiology of depression and anxiety
			27.3.3 Causes of depression and anxiety
		27.4 Antidepressants
			27.4.1 Classification of antidepressants and antianxiety drugs
			27.4.2 Pharmacokinetics
			27.4.3 Mechanism of action of antidepressants and antianxiety drugs
			27.4.4 Possible side effects of antidepressants
		27.5 Traditional medicine for the treatment of depression and anxiety
		27.6 Saffron
			27.6.1 Chemical compounds of saffron
			27.6.2 Pharmaceutical applications of saffron in traditional medicine
			27.6.3 Pharmacology of saffron and its active ingredients
			27.6.4 In vivo studies on the effects of saffron and its active compounds on depression and anxiety
			27.6.5 Antidepressant and anxiolytic properties of saffron in clinical practice
			27.6.6 Mechanistic pathway for antidepressant and antianxiety effects
			27.6.7 Effect of saffron and saffron compounds on nervous system diseases
		27.7 Conclusion
		References
	28 Application of saffron as a neuroprotective agent
		28.1 Alzheimer’s disease
			28.1.1 Introduction and epidemiology
			28.1.2 Signs and symptoms
			28.1.3 Pathogenesis
			28.1.4 Pharmacological therapy
		28.2 Saffron in Alzheimer’s disease treatment
			28.2.1 Introduction to saffron
			28.2.2 Effects of saffron on the central nervous system
			28.2.3 Neuroprotective activity of saffron
			28.2.4 Saffron clinical trials on Alzheimer’s disease
		28.3 Other herbal medicines and Alzheimer’s disease
		28.4 Conclusion
		References
	29 Cardiovascular effects of saffron and its active constituents
		29.1 Introduction
		29.2 Cardiovascular pharmacological effects of saffron
			29.2.1 Antiarrhythmic and antiischemic effects
			29.2.2 Protective effects against cardiac hypertrophy
			29.2.3 Effects of saffron and its active constituents on blood pressure
			29.2.4 Antiatherosclerotic effects of saffron and its active constituents
			29.2.5 Protective effects of saffron and its active constituents on natural and chemical toxins
		29.3 Conclusion
		References
	30 Saffron, its main derivatives, and their effects on the respiratory system
		30.1 Introduction
		30.2 Bronchodilatory effect of saffron and its derivatives
			30.2.1 Relaxant effect of saffron extracts on airway smooth muscle
			30.2.2 Relaxant effect of saffron derivatives on airway smooth muscle
			30.2.3 Possible mechanisms of the airway smooth muscle relaxant effect of saffron and its derivatives
		30.3 Prophylactic effect of saffron and its derivatives on respiratory disorders
			30.3.1 Prophylactic effect of saffron extracts on respiratory disorders
			30.3.2 Prophylactic effect of saffron derivatives on respiratory disorders
		30.4 Conclusion
		References
	31 Saffron’s role in metabolic disorders
		31.1 Introduction
		31.2 Effects of saffron on obesity
		31.3 Effects of saffron on diabetes
			31.3.1 Antihyperglycemic effects of saffron
			31.3.2 Antihyperglycemic mechanisms of saffron
			31.3.3 Effects of saffron on diabetic complications
				31.3.3.1 Diabetic neuropathy
				31.3.3.2 Diabetic nephropathy
				31.3.3.3 Cardiovascular complications
				31.3.3.4 Diabetic retinopathy
				31.3.3.5 Liver damage
				31.3.3.6 Other complications of diabetes
		31.4 Conclusion
		References
	32 Anticancer properties of saffron
		32.1 Introduction
		32.2 Lung cancer
		32.3 Pancreatic cancer
		32.4 Colorectal cancer
		32.5 Breast cancer
		32.6 Leukemia
		32.7 Hepatic cancer
		32.8 Cervical cancer
		32.9 Skin cancer
		32.10 Prostate cancer
		32.11 Gastric cancer
		32.12 Conclusion
		References
	33 Available saffron formulations and product patents
		33.1 Introduction
		33.2 Skin care products
			33.2.1 Creams
				33.2.1.1 Bath cream
				33.2.1.2 Face cream
				33.2.1.3 Hand cream
				33.2.1.4 Biological cosmetic cream
				33.2.1.5 Freckle-whitening cream
				33.2.1.6 Aloe whitening cream
				33.2.1.7 Fu Yang repair cream
				33.2.1.8 Liquid cream
				33.2.1.9 Fair-complexion face powder
			33.2.2 Masks
				33.2.2.1 Rose mask
				33.2.2.2 Mask for treating common acne
				33.2.2.3 Oil-induced acne herbal soap
				33.2.2.4 Attapulgite-saffron suntan lotion
		33.3 Health care products
			33.3.1 Toothpaste
			33.3.2 Drugs for kidney health
			33.3.3 Compositions containing enriched natural crocin and/or crocetin
			33.3.4 Hair conditioner
		33.4 Therapeutic products
			33.4.1 Chinese medicine for treatment of angiitis
			33.4.2 Krocina tablet
			33.4.3 Topical spray
			33.4.4 Arthritis and rheumatism liquid patch
			33.4.5 Ointment for treating dermatitis
			33.4.6 Antiacne ointment
			33.4.7 Topical spray for treating skin scars
			33.4.8 Oral compositions
			33.4.9 Tibetan nighttime medicine
			33.4.10 Antimicrobial composition
			33.4.11 Chinese medicinal composition
			33.4.12 Gout medicine
			33.4.13 Prepregnancy fetus protection pills
			33.4.14 Cold and flu symptomatic relief composition
			33.4.15 Herbal composition for treating diabetes
			33.4.16 Multiglycosides saffron tablets
			33.4.17 Externally applied Chinese medicine
			33.4.18 Satiation agent for the treatment of obesity
			33.4.19 Medicine for treating chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
			33.4.20 Topical treatment for rheumatic arthritis
			33.4.21 Chinese medicine for treatment and prevention of rheumatic arthritis
			33.4.22 Saffron-based compositions for treating of duodenal bulbar ulcer or inflammation
			33.4.23 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating gastric ulcer
			33.4.24 Topical treatment for breast cancer
			33.4.25 Chinese medicine for treating brain apoplexy
			33.4.26 Saffrotin capsule
			33.4.27 Composition for the treatment and prevention of degenerative eye disorders
			33.4.28 Medicine for treating prostatic hyperplasia
			33.4.29 Chinese medicine for treatment of gynecologic diseases
			33.4.30 Traditional Chinese composition for treating dysmenorrhea
			33.4.31 Composition for treating endocrine dysfunction
			33.4.32 Chinese formulation for treating premature ovarian failure
			33.4.33 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating rheumatic heart disease
			33.4.34 Chinese medicine for treating cataracts
			33.4.35 Traditional Chinese medicine capable of treating cervical spondylosis
			33.4.36 Traditional Chinese medicine preparation for treating qi stagnation and blood stasis
			33.4.37 Chinese medicine for treating osteoproliferation and herniated disk
			33.4.38 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating blocking antibody deficiency in recurrent spontaneous abortion
			33.4.39 Herbal medicine formula for treating nasopharyngitis
			33.4.40 Chinese medicine for treating lung tumor
			33.4.41 Medicine for treating damp-heat stagnation (abdominal mass)
			33.4.42 Traditional Chinese medicine composition for treating ascites due to cirrhosis
			33.4.43 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating nonulcer dyspepsia
			33.4.44 Chinese medicine for treating peptic ulcer
			33.4.45 Medicine for treating ankylosing spondylitis
			33.4.46 Externally-applied wet tissue for treating measles
			33.4.47 Treatment of herpes zoster
			33.4.48 Chinese composition for treating septic shock
			33.4.49 Drug for treating bone injury
			33.4.50 Traditional Chinese medicine for treating cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases
			33.4.51 Medicine for treating eyelid eczema
		33.5 Food products
			33.5.1 Vegetable drinks
			33.5.2 Healthy drink prepared from saffron pollen
		33.6 Conclusion
		References
	34 Safety and toxicity of saffron
		34.1 Introduction
		34.2 Experimental data on the safety and toxicity of saffron and its bioactive ingredients in animal models
			34.2.1 Acute toxicity
			34.2.2 Subacute toxicity
			34.2.3 Subchronic and chronic toxicity
			34.2.4 Developmental toxicity
			34.2.5 Mutagenicity and genotoxicity
		34.3 Clinical studies on safe and toxic doses of saffron and its bioactive ingredients
		34.4 Conclusion
		References
Index
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