Safety and Health in Composite Industry

Preface
Contents
1 Introduction to Safety and Health
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Accident and Its Consequences
	1.3 Losses
	1.4 Unsafe Acts and Unsafe Conditions
	1.5 Engineering Knowledge in Safety and Health for Composite Fields
		1.5.1 Safety Engineering
		1.5.2 Ergonomics and Human Factor Engineering
		1.5.3 Chemical Engineering
		1.5.4 Fire Protection Engineering
		1.5.5 Industrial Engineering
	1.6 Preventive Strategies and Approach
		1.6.1 Frequency Strategy
		1.6.2 Severity Strategy
		1.6.3 Cost Strategy
		1.6.4 Combined Strategy
	1.7 The Three Es’ of Safety
	1.8 Significance for Safety and Health Monitoring
		1.8.1 Keeping People Safe
		1.8.2 Injury, Cost, Time, and Money
		1.8.3 Fewer Injuries Increase Productivity
		1.8.4 Increase Public Perception
		1.8.5 Minimizing Legal Liabilities
	1.9 Conclusions
	References
2 Composites and Biocomposites: Manufacturing and Processing
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Polymers
		2.2.1 Synthetic Polymers
		2.2.2 Natural Polymers
	2.3 Fibres
		2.3.1 Synthetic Fibres
		2.3.2 Natural Fibres
	2.4 Extraction of Fibres
		2.4.1 Retting Process
		2.4.2 Mechanical Decortication
		2.4.3 Mechanical Dehulling
	2.5 Fibre Treatments
	2.6 Manufacturing Process of Composites and Biocomposites
		2.6.1 Hand Lay-Up
		2.6.2 Pultrusion
		2.6.3 Compression Moulding
		2.6.4 Injection Moulding
		2.6.5 Vacuum Bagging/Moulding
		2.6.6 Resin Transfer Moulding
	2.7 Conclusions
	References
3 Emission of Hazardous Air Pollution in the Composite Production
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Styrene Emissions
		3.2.1 What Is Styrene?
		3.2.2 Importance and Uses of Styrene
	3.3 Formaldehyde Emissions
		3.3.1 Wood Based Composites
		3.3.2 Building Materials and Indoors Products
	3.4 Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Emissions—Formaldehyde
	3.5 Indoor Air Quality
		3.5.1 Subsequent Formaldehyde Release Regulations
	3.6 Environmental Issues Related to Health
		3.6.1 Emission of Composite Production
		3.6.2 Styrene Emissions Effect
		3.6.3 Formaldehyde Emissions Effect
		3.6.4 VOCs Emissions Effect
	3.7 National Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants in Composite Production
		3.7.1 Clean Air Act (CAA) Amendments 1990
		3.7.2 Industrial Code of Practice (ICOP) on Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
		3.7.3 Occupational and Safety (Use and Standard of Hazardous Chemical Exposure to Health) Regulation 2000 (USECHH Regulation)
		3.7.4 International Regulations and Guidelines
	3.8 Control of Composite Pollution
		3.8.1 Law Regarding the Control of Composite Pollution
		3.8.2 Usage of Low-Styrene Materials
		3.8.3 VOC Abatement System
		3.8.4 Lowering the Urea–Formaldehyde mol Ration in the Synthesis of Urea–Formaldehyde Resin
	3.9 Conclusions
	References
4 Safety in Composite Laboratory
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 1994
	4.3 Safety
	4.4 Laboratory Safety Knowledge
	4.5 General Laboratory Safety Rules and Guidelines
	4.6 Awareness, Attitude, and Action Toward Safety
	4.7 Safety Practices
	4.8 General Rules and Policies for General Users of the Advanced Composites Laboratory
	4.9 Preliminary Training Courses on Safety
	4.10 Raw Material Handling and Preparation
	4.11 Personal Protective Equipment
		4.11.1 Eye Protection
		4.11.2 Laboratory Coats and Jackets
		4.11.3 Face Protection
		4.11.4 Hand Protection
		4.11.5 Respiratory Protection
	4.12 Waste Disposal Management
	4.13 Equipment Inspection and Maintenance
		4.13.1 Electrical Powered Laboratory Equipment
		4.13.2 Equipment with Compressed Gases
		4.13.3 Working with Extreme Pressures and Temperatures Equipment
	4.14 Emergency Equipment and Response Procedures
		4.14.1 Fire Safety Equipment
		4.14.2 Safety Showers and Eyewash Units
	4.15 Conclusions
	References
5 Design for Safety in Composites
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Background of Design for Safety
	5.3 Total Design Model in Composite Development Under the Scope of Design for Safety
	5.4 Design for Safety in Composite Product Development
		5.4.1 Ergonomic Design: Sharp Edge and Corners
		5.4.2 Painting and Finishing Following Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Regulations
		5.4.3 Designing the Product So It Is Easier to Use Safely Than Unsafely
		5.4.4 Thoroughly Testing Prototypes to Reveal Any Hazards Overlooked in the Initial Design
	5.5 Integration of Other Concurrent Engineering Tools with Design for Safety in Composite Product Development
		5.5.1 Systematic Exploitation of Proven Ideas or Experience
		5.5.2 Extending the Search Space
		5.5.3 Morphological Method
		5.5.4 Gallery Method
		5.5.5 Voice of Customer
		5.5.6 Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ)
		5.5.7 Other Concurrent Engineering Tools and Techniques
	5.6 Recent Developments and Advancements of Design for Safety
	5.7 Conclusions
	References
6 Carbon Footprint in Healthcare
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Methods of Analysis
	6.3 Carbon Emissions from Health Sector
		6.3.1 Energy Consumption from Hospital Buildings
		6.3.2 Carbon Emission from Medical Activities
	6.4 Reducing Carbon Emissions in Healthcare
		6.4.1 Operating Theaters
		6.4.2 Medical Conferences
		6.4.3 Hospital Facilities
	6.5 Effects of Carbon Emission to Healthcare Expenditures
		6.5.1 Expenditure
	6.6 Conclusion
	References
7 Safety Issues in Composite Materials
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Reinforcement Fibres
		7.2.1 Overview
		7.2.2 Respirable Particles
		7.2.3 Exposure via Inhalation
		7.2.4 Exposure via Skin Contact
	7.3 Safety Equipment on Composite
		7.3.1 Overview
		7.3.2 Types of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
	7.4 Manufacturing and the Safety Aspect
		7.4.1 Overview
		7.4.2 Nano-Titanium
		7.4.3 Additive Manufacturing
		7.4.4 Laminating Object Manufacturing (LOM)
		7.4.5 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
	7.5 Styrene Formation
		7.5.1 What Is Styrene?
		7.5.2 Routes of Exposure and Concentration Limit
		7.5.3 Health Effects of Styrene
		7.5.4 Manufacturing Process of Styrene
		7.5.5 Emission of Styrene from Resin
		7.5.6 Methods of Control
	7.6 Safety Training in Handling Composite Products
		7.6.1 Overview
		7.6.2 Nanosafety Training
		7.6.3 Carbon Fibre Training
		7.6.4 Hands-On Practice
	7.7 Conclusions
	References
8 Fire Safety in Polymers Composites
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Principles of Flame Resistance in Polymers: Conventional Flame Retardants (FR) and Their Mechanisms
		8.2.1 Halogen-Based Agents
		8.2.2 Phosphorous-Based Compounds
		8.2.3 Metal Hydroxides
		8.2.4 Boron-Based Flame Retardants
		8.2.5 Nitrogen-Based Flame Retardants
		8.2.6 Summary
	8.3 Environmental Impact of Conventional Flame Retardants
		8.3.1 Major Source and Accumulation
		8.3.2 Unlawful Disposal of Consumer Products
		8.3.3 Control and Monitoring Efforts
		8.3.4 Summary
	8.4 Nanofillers as Fire Retardants in Polymers
		8.4.1 Layered Silicates
		8.4.2 Needle-Like Sepiolite
		8.4.3 Carbon Nanotubes
		8.4.4 Summary
	8.5 Issues with Fire Performance of Polymer Nanocomposites
		8.5.1 Thermal Stability
		8.5.2 Time-to-Ignition and Thickness of Samples
		8.5.3 Migration of Nanoparticles
		8.5.4 Homogeneity/Uniformity of the Barrier
	8.6 Conclusion
	References
9 Health Hazard from Composites
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Health Hazards of Combustion Products from Aircraft Composite Materials (Carbon Fibre)
		9.2.1 Introduction to the Hazard of Combustion Products from Aircraft
		9.2.2 Background of the Carbon Fibre Usage
		9.2.3 Composition of Polymer Composites in Carbon Fibre
		9.2.4 Carbon Fibre Toxicology
		9.2.5 Toxicity from Combustion of Carbon Composites
		9.2.6 Risk Mitigation for Carbon Fibre
		9.2.7 Summary of Health Hazards of Carbon Fibre
	9.3 Health Hazards of Dental Resin Composites in Medical Industry
		9.3.1 Background of Dental Resin Composites
		9.3.2 Cause of Degradation of Dental Resin Composites
		9.3.3 General and Local Toxicity of Dental Resin Components
		9.3.4 Summary of Health Hazards of Dental Resin Composites
	9.4 Health Hazard in Composites Used in Food Packaging Industry
		9.4.1 Background on Composite Food Packaging
		9.4.2 Health Hazard Concerns from Food Packaging of LDPE Nanocomposite Material
		9.4.3 Summary on LDPE Nanocomposites
	9.5 Health Hazards of Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) in the Manufacturing Industry
		9.5.1 General Information on the Composition of MDF and Its Production Process
		9.5.2 Emission of MDF Dust and Formaldehyde
		9.5.3 Health Hazards of Emissions from the MDF Work Process
		9.5.4 Recommendations to Reduce Exposure to Formaldehyde and MDF Dust
		9.5.5 Summary of Findings on MDF
	9.6 Health Hazards of Concrete Compounds in Construction Industry
		9.6.1 Background of Concrete Compounds
		9.6.2 Health Hazards from the Usage of Concrete Compounds
		9.6.3 Effects of Silicosis to Human Body
		9.6.4 Prevention of Contacting Silicosis from the Concrete Compound
		9.6.5 Summary of Health Hazards of Concrete
	9.7 Conclusion
	References
10 Safety and Health Issues Associated with Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites in Various Industrial Sectors
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Agriculture
		10.2.1 Overview
		10.2.2 Fruit Fibre
		10.2.3 Stem Fibres
	10.3 Automotive Industry
		10.3.1 Background
		10.3.2 DPF in Automotive Safety and Health
		10.3.3 Lignocellulosic Fibres in Automotive
	10.4 Medical and Dental Applications
		10.4.1 Overview
		10.4.2 Dental and Medical Applications: Health Recovery
	10.5 Food Packaging
		10.5.1 Overview
		10.5.2 Food Packaging
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Occupational Safety and Health Administration in Composite Industry
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Occupational Safety and Health in the United States
		11.2.1 Background
		11.2.2 Scenario and Health Issues in the United States
	11.3 Occupational Safety and Health in the United Kingdom
		11.3.1 Background
		11.3.2 Composite Trade Body in the United Kingdom
		11.3.3 Occupational Health and Safety Management System
	11.4 Occupational Safety and Health in Malaysia
		11.4.1 Background
		11.4.2 Management Practices in Safety Culture
		11.4.3 Composite Industry Scenario in Malaysia
		11.4.4 Occupational Health Issues in Malaysia
	11.5 Health Components in Composite Industries
		11.5.1 Background
		11.5.2 Fibre Reinforced Polymer Composites
		11.5.3 Beryllium Reinforced Composite Materials
		11.5.4 Reinforced Plastics and Composite Products
	11.6 Safety Components in Composite Industries
		11.6.1 Background
		11.6.2 Safety Training Program
		11.6.3 Hazard Communication Standard
		11.6.4 Medical Emergency Preparedness
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12 The Role of Biocomposites in Health Issues During COVID-19 Pandemic
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Composites and Nanocomposites Contribution During COVID-19 Pandemic
	12.3 Biocomposites Applications in Health During COVID-19 Pandemic
	12.4 Conclusions and Future Outlooks
	References
13 Safety Issues in Transportation Design
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Safety Issues in Aircraft Design
		13.2.1 Aircraft Fire Safety Design
		13.2.2 Airworthiness Design
		13.2.3 Design of Aircraft Seat
	13.3 Safety Issues in Train Design
		13.3.1 Train (Automatic Train Operation)
		13.3.2 Safety in Automatic Train Operation (ATO)
		13.3.3 Rail Vehicles
		13.3.4 Safety in Rail Vehicles
		13.3.5 Passive Road-Rail Crossing
		13.3.6 Safety in Passive Road Rail Crossing
	13.4 Safety Issues in Bus Design
		13.4.1 Floor of the Bus
		13.4.2 Type of Seat
		13.4.3 Bus Tyres
	13.5 Safety Issues in Maritime Transportation Design
		13.5.1 Stability Design in Maritime Transportation
		13.5.2 Fire Protection Design in Maritime Transportation
	13.6 Safety Issues in Automotive Design
		13.6.1 Safety Issues of Infants Car Seat
		13.6.2 Safety Issues of Seat Belt
		13.6.3 Safety Issues in Bumper System
	13.7 Conclusion
	References