Robotics for Electronics Manufacturing: Principles and Applications in Cleanroom Automation

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 7
Copyright......Page 8
Dedication......Page 9
Contents......Page 11
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgments......Page 14
1.1 History of industrial robotics......Page 15
1.2 The global robotics industry......Page 16
1.3 Applications and operational stock by region......Page 19
1.4 Socioeconomic impact......Page 20
1.5 Definitions, standards, and terminology......Page 21
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)......Page 22
1.5.3 Standard robot types......Page 24
1.6 Applicable and related standards......Page 25
2.1.1 Cleanroom requirements......Page 26
2.1.2 History of cleanroom robotics......Page 27
2.2.1 Automation levels and history......Page 28
2.2.2 Semiconductor manufacturing process......Page 31
Final manufacturing (‘back-end’ processing)......Page 32
Vacuum robot applications......Page 33
2.3.1 FPD market......Page 34
2.3.2 Liquid crystal displays......Page 35
Rear glass manufacturing......Page 36
Early cleanroom robots......Page 37
Robot cleanliness......Page 38
2.4.2 Economics......Page 39
Handling robots......Page 40
2.5 Applicable and related standards......Page 42
3.1.1 Materials for parts and components......Page 44
Aluminum......Page 45
Plastics......Page 46
Composites......Page 48
3.1.2 Grease and lubricants......Page 50
3.2.1 Electrostatic discharge......Page 51
3.2.2 Electrostatic attraction......Page 53
Grounding......Page 54
Environmental ESD control: maximum field strength......Page 55
Environmental ESD control: real-time monitoring......Page 56
Powder coating......Page 57
Electropolished stainless steel......Page 58
3.3.2 Selecting a surface finish......Page 59
Selection criterion 1: electrostatic discharge and attraction......Page 60
Data analysis and ranking......Page 61
3.4.1 Typical design concept......Page 62
Maintainability......Page 63
Evacuating generated particles......Page 64
Lubricants......Page 65
Seals for revolute joints......Page 66
3.5.1 Forces and moments......Page 67
Ball bearings......Page 68
Design objectives......Page 69
3.5.3 Force and moment analysis......Page 70
3.6 End-effectors......Page 74
3.7 Robot assembly and handling......Page 76
3.8 Applicable and related standards......Page 84
4.1 Robotics challenges in vacuum environments......Page 87
4.2.1 Fundamentals......Page 88
4.2.2 Vacuum quality......Page 89
4.3 Static vacuum barrier......Page 90
Standards......Page 91
4.3.2 Gaskets and O-rings......Page 92
4.4 Dynamic vacuum barrier......Page 93
Concept and main components......Page 94
Magnetic design......Page 95
Operating range......Page 96
4.4.2 Metal bellows......Page 98
4.4.3 Magnetic couplings......Page 99
4.4.5 Lip seals......Page 102
4.4.6 Harmonic drives......Page 104
4.4.7 Motors and electrical components in vacuum?......Page 105
4.5.1 Transmission with metal belts and pulleys......Page 106
Stress analysis......Page 107
Tracking of metal belts......Page 108
4.5.2 Transmission with gearheads......Page 109
4.5.3 Bearings......Page 111
4.5.5 Lubricants for vacuum......Page 112
4.6.1 External leaks......Page 113
Sources of virtual leaks......Page 114
Prevention of virtual leaks......Page 115
Virtual leak diameter......Page 116
4.7 Materials and surface finishes......Page 118
4.7.2 Outgassing......Page 119
Low-outgassing materials......Page 121
NASA database of low-outgassing materials......Page 122
Converting TML or CVCM to outgassing rate......Page 123
4.7.3 Permeation......Page 125
4.7.4 Materials for vacuum robots......Page 126
Metals for vacuum seals......Page 127
Non-metal seal and gasket materials......Page 128
4.8.1 Cleaning......Page 129
4.8.2 Assembly and handling......Page 131
4.8.3 Removing gas loads......Page 132
4.9 Applicable and related standards......Page 134
5.1 Joint space, operational space, and workspace......Page 138
5.2 Kinematic robot structures......Page 140
5.2.2 Cylindrical robots......Page 142
5.3 Mathematical foundations......Page 143
Orientation (rotation)......Page 144
5.3.2 Rotation matrix......Page 145
5.3.3 Homogenous coordinate transforms......Page 146
5.4.2 Denavit–Hartenberg notation......Page 148
5.4.3 Generalized coordinates and kinematic equations......Page 151
5.4.4 Decoupled axes of motion......Page 152
5.4.5 Differential kinematics and kinematic singularities......Page 155
Kinematic calibration......Page 159
5.5 Inverse kinematics......Page 163
5.6.1 Robots arms with constrained arm motion......Page 164
5.6.2 Robot arms with independent, fully controllable arm links......Page 166
5.7 Applicable and related standards......Page 167
6.1.1 Equation of motion......Page 168
6.1.2 Lagrange’s method......Page 169
6.2 Robot motion control......Page 176
6.2.1 Two feedback control concepts......Page 177
Dynamical model of an individual joint and arm link......Page 178
Decentralized control of an independent joint......Page 182
Stability......Page 184
Disturbance rejection (steady-state)......Page 185
6.3.1 Traditional controller architecture......Page 186
6.3.2 Realization of networked, decentralized control......Page 187
6.4 Applicable and related standards......Page 191
7.1.1 Clean mini-environments......Page 193
Probe positions and particle measurements......Page 195
7.2.1 Overview......Page 196
7.2.2 Measurement system......Page 197
7.3.1 Algorithm......Page 200
Positioning and orientation accuracy......Page 201
Positioning and orientation repeatability......Page 202
Overall positioning performance......Page 203
Discussion......Page 204
Measurement system......Page 205
Repeatability measurement system......Page 206
Computing position and orientation errors......Page 208
Measurement resolution......Page 209
7.3.4 Laser-based repeatability test in three dimensions......Page 210
Measurement system......Page 211
7.4 Path accuracy and repeatability......Page 213
7.4.1 Definitions and algorithms......Page 214
Path (positioning) accuracy......Page 215
Path (positioning) repeatability......Page 216
7.4.2 Measurement system......Page 218
7.5.1 Algorithm......Page 220
7.5.2 Vibration measurement system......Page 223
7.5.3 Data analysis and performance indices......Page 225
7.6.1 Motivation......Page 226
7.6.2 Measurement system......Page 228
Overview......Page 229
Calibrating the measurement system......Page 230
7.6.3 Measurement and data analysis......Page 231
7.7 Applicable and related standards......Page 232
A.2 Unit conversion tables......Page 234
Appendix B: Standards organizations......Page 237
Appendix C: Standard temperature and pressure (STP)......Page 239
References......Page 240
Index......Page 246