Risk Management in Outer Space Activities: An Australian and New Zealand Perspective

Foreword
Risk Management in Outer Space Activities: An Australian and New Zealand Perspective
Editor’s Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Contributors
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Risk Management in Outer Space Activities
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 What Is Risk and What Is Risk Management?
	1.3 What Are Space Activities?
	1.4 What and Where Is Outer Space?
	1.5 How Does Risk Management Relate to Space Activities and Outer Space?
	1.6 The Layers of Control
	1.7 Different Risk Contexts
	References
Chapter 2: The Commercialisation of Space: An Overview of Legal Risks and Considerations
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Modern Space Economy
		2.2.1 From Public to Private: The Development of the Space Economy
		2.2.2 The Space Economy and Space Sub-sectors: The Trend Towards Increased Commercialisation
		2.2.3 Space Sub-sectors
			2.2.3.1 Space Manufacturing
			2.2.3.2 Space Operations
			2.2.3.3 Space Applications
			2.2.3.4 Secondary Space Services
	2.3 The Space Economy in Australia
	2.4 The Space Economy in New Zealand
	2.5 Commercial Space Activities and the Legal Risk Environment
		2.5.1 Regulatory Risk
			2.5.1.1 Approvals, Authorisations, Permits and Licences for Space Activities
			2.5.1.2 Insurance Requirements
			2.5.1.3 Space Debris Mitigation
			2.5.1.4 Government Oversight: Space Agencies and Regulators
		2.5.2 Contractual Risks
			2.5.2.1 Liability and Indemnity
			2.5.2.2 Intellectual Property
			2.5.2.3 Warranties
			2.5.2.4 Insurance
	2.6 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 3: Risk Management Through New Zealand’s and Australia’s Space Legislative Frameworks
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 International Space Law
		3.2.1 An Overview of International Space Law
		3.2.2 The Status of International Space Law in New Zealand and Australia
	3.3 Risk Management Under the New Zealand Outer Space and High Altitude Activities Act 2017 (OSHaA Act)
		3.3.1 Development of the OSHaA Act
		3.3.2 Overview of the OSHaA Act
			3.3.2.1 Purpose of the OSHaA Act
			3.3.2.2 Activities Requiring Approvals and Corresponding Licences, Permits and Authorisations
		3.3.3 Risk Management and Risk Transfer: An Overview of the Liability Provisions in the OSHaA Act
	3.4 Risk Management Under the Australian Space (Launches and Returns) Act 2018
		3.4.1 Development of the Space Act
		3.4.2 Space Activities Amendment (Bilateral Agreement) Act 2001 (Cth)
		3.4.3 Space Activities Amendment Act 2002 (Cth)
		3.4.4 Space Activities Amendment (Launches and Returns) Act 2018 (Cth)
	3.5 Overview of the Space (Launches and Returns) Act 2018
		3.5.1 Purposes of the Space Act
		3.5.2 Activities Requiring Approval and Corresponding Licences, Permits and Authorisations
	3.6 Transferring Risk: An Overview of the Space Act Liability Provisions
		3.6.1 Damage
		3.6.2 Space Object
		3.6.3 When Does Liability Occur – Activities, Liability and Scope of Damage
		3.6.4 Damage to Third Parties on Earth or in the Air for Australian Launches and Returns
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Transferring Risk Through Insurance Law: Insuring Space Activities in Australia and New Zealand
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 An Overview of Insurance Law over Space Activities
		4.2.1 Risk Transfer in Commercial Insurance
		4.2.2 Commercial Drivers for Insurance in Space Activities
		4.2.3 Statutory Requirements for Insurance
		4.2.4 Classes of Space Insurance
		4.2.5 Types of Insurable Events
		4.2.6 Property Damage Insurance, Satellite Loss of Revenue, and Business Interruption
		4.2.7 Liability Insurance
	4.3 The Intersection Between Australia and New Zealand’s Insurance Law and the Requirement to Hold Space Insurance for Space Activities
		4.3.1 An Overview of Insurance Law in Australia and New Zealand
		4.3.2 Utmost Good Faith in Insurance Law
		4.3.3 Duty of Disclosure Requirements in Insurance
		4.3.4 Subrogation in Insurance Law
		4.3.5 The Application of Insurance Law
	4.4 Requirements to Hold Space Insurance for Space Activities in Australia and New Zealand
		4.4.1 Australia
			4.4.1.1 Level of Cover and Maximum Probable Loss Methodology
		4.4.2 New Zealand
	References
Chapter 5: Managing the Risks Associated with Space Debris
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 A Background to Space Debris
		5.2.1 What Is Space Debris?
		5.2.2 How Is Space Debris Created?
		5.2.3 Where Is Space Debris Located?
		5.2.4 What Are the Problems and Risks Associated with Space Debris?
		5.2.5 Perspectives on Space Debris
	5.3 Identifying, Tracking and Cataloguing Space Debris
	5.4 Active Space Debris Removal
	5.5 International Space Law and Space Debris
	5.6 Space Debris Mitigation: A Form of Risk Management
		5.6.1 Space Traffic Management
		5.6.2 Space Debris Mitigation
		5.6.3 Space Debris Mitigation Instruments
			5.6.3.1 Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines
			5.6.3.2 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
			5.6.3.3 International Organization for Standardization Space Debris Mitigation Standards and Technical Reports
			5.6.3.4 European Code of Conduct for Space Debris Mitigation
			5.6.3.5 ESA Space Debris Mitigation Policy for Agency Projects
			5.6.3.6 International Telecommunications Union Recommendation
			5.6.3.7 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Process for Limiting Orbital Debris
			5.6.3.8 Space Safety Coalition’s Best Practices for the Sustainability of Space Operations
			5.6.3.9 Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities
	5.7 State Responses to Space Debris: National Laws and Space Debris Mitigation
		5.7.1 Australian Law and Space Debris
		5.7.2 New Zealand Law and Space Debris
		5.7.3 Analysis
	5.8 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 6: Managing the Cyber-Related Risks to Space Activities
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 The Convergence of Space Security and Cybersecurity
		6.2.1 The Threat Environment
		6.2.2 The Cyber-Related Risks to Space Activities
			6.2.2.1 Social Engineering Attacks
			6.2.2.2 Denial of Service (DoS) Attack
			6.2.2.3 Malware Attack
			6.2.2.4 Hijacking
			6.2.2.5 Man-in-the Middle Attacks (Data Interception and Monitoring)
			6.2.2.6 Spoofing
	6.3 International Space Law and the Management of Cyber-Related Risks to Space Activities
		6.3.1 The Outer Space Treaty
		6.3.2 The Liability Convention
	6.4 National Frameworks for Managing the Cyber-Related Risks to Space Activities
		6.4.1 Australia
		6.4.2 New Zealand
		6.4.3 Comparison of Australia and New Zealand’s National Frameworks
	6.5 Concluding Remarks
		6.5.1 Definitions for Commonly Used Terms
		6.5.2 Communication and Collaboration Between the Space and Cyber Communities
		6.5.3 Cybersecurity Norms and Best Practices for Space Activities
	References
Chapter 7: Light Pollution as a Risk for Astronomical Research and How to Manage It
	7.1 Introduction: Astronomy and Light Pollution
	7.2 Natural Beauty of the Night Sky
	7.3 What Is Light Pollution and How Does It Affect the Visibility of Stars and the Universe?
	7.4 Number of Stars Visible as a Function of Their Apparent Magnitude
	7.5 Light Levels in the Environment from Natural and Artificial Sources
	7.6 The Bortle Scale of Light Pollution
	7.7 Measuring the Brightness of the Night Sky
	7.8 The International Astronomical Union and Its Commission for Protecting the Night Sky at Observatory Sites
	7.9 The International Dark-Sky Association and Accreditation of Dark Sky Places
	7.10 The Aoraki Mackenzie International Dark Sky Reserve: A Case Study for Light Pollution Mitigation
	7.11 The Starlight Foundation and UNESCO
	7.12 Nineteenth Century Urban Observatories and Their Fate in the Twentieth Century Electric Light Era
	7.13 The Search for Dark Observatory Sites Away from the Light Pollution of Cities and on Remote Mountain Tops
	7.14 The Effect of Light Pollution on Astronomical Observations
	7.15 Luminaire Types and the Role of Light Type in Light Pollution
	7.16 The Rise of the Light-Emitting Diode (LED) as a Light Source
	7.17 Lighting Ordinances to Protect Observatory Sites
	7.18 The World Atlas of Artificial Night Sky Brightness
	7.19 Light Pollution and the Environment
	7.20 The Consequences of Light Pollution for Human Health
	7.21 The Growth of Astro-Tourism in Protected Dark Sky Places
	7.22 Light Pollution from Artificial Satellites in Space and Elon Musk’s Starlink Project
	7.23 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 8: New Risks of Future Lunar Landings
	8.1 Lunar Mission Risks – Introduction and Technical Overview
	8.2 Past Lunar Lander Missions – USA, USSR, and China
	8.3 Recent Failures – Israel’s “Beresheet” and India’s “Chandrayaan-2”
	8.4 Contested Landing Sites on the Moon; A Novel Risk of Lunar Landings
	8.5 Why Missions are Targeting the Lunar South Pole
	8.6 Governments, Companies, and Organizations Targeting the Lunar South Pole
	8.7 Summary of Proposed Lander Sizes, Masses, and Rocket Thrust Levels
	8.8 Plume Effects from Large Lunar Landers – Recent Research
	8.9 Perspectives from the Domain of Space Law – The Outer Space Treaty and the Duty to Consult
	8.10 Competing Missions and Operational Zones
	8.11 Risks Associated with Non-cooperation
	8.12 Potential Solutions
	References