Riot Control Agents: Issues in Toxicology, Safety & Health

Cover Page......Page 1
Title: RIOT CONTROL AGENTS: ISSUES IN TOXICOLOGY, SAFETY, AND HEALTH......Page 3
ISBN 0415299020......Page 4
Contents (with page links)......Page 5
List of Contributors......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 10
1.3 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES......Page 14
1.4 HAND-HELD DEVICES AND PERSONAL PROTECTIVE SPRAYS......Page 17
1.5 ACTIVE INGREDIENTS OF DEFENSE SPRAYS......Page 19
1.6 DEGRADATION AND DECONTAMINATION PRODUCTS......Page 21
REFERENCES......Page 22
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 24
2.2.1 Storage cylinders......Page 26
2.2.5 Cartridges......Page 27
2.2.7 Man-portable dispenser......Page 28
2.3.1 Military use and application......Page 29
2.3.4 Barricade situations......Page 31
REFERENCES......Page 32
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 33
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 34
Synthesis......Page 35
Analysis......Page 36
Synthesis......Page 37
Dibenz[ b,f]1:4-oxazepine (CR)......Page 38
Analysis......Page 39
Agent PS......Page 40
3.3 STERNUTATORS......Page 41
3.4 CONCLUSION......Page 42
REFERENCES......Page 43
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 45
4.2.1 Uptake and distribution of CS......Page 46
4.2.3 Uptake and distribution of CN......Page 47
4.3 METABOLISM OF RCAs......Page 48
4.3.1 Metabolism and fate of CS......Page 52
4.3.2 Metabolism and fate of CR......Page 53
4.3.3 Metabolism and fate of CN......Page 55
4.4 MODES OF ACTION AND BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS OF RCAs......Page 56
4.4.1 Modes of action and biological interactions of CS......Page 58
4.4.2 Mechanisms and interactions of CR and CN......Page 60
4.4.3 Mechanisms and interactions of capsaicin and capsaicinoids......Page 61
REFERENCES......Page 64
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 72
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 74
5.2 OCULAR SENSORY IRRITATION AND RCAs......Page 77
5.2.2 Dibenz[b,f]1:4-oxazepine (CR)......Page 78
5.2.3 Chloroacetophenone......Page 79
5.3 PULMONARY SENSORY IRRITATION OF RCAs......Page 80
5.3.4 Capsaicin, capsaicinoids, and oleoresin capsicum......Page 81
5.4.1 Dibenz[b,f]1:4-oxazepine (CR)......Page 82
5.4.2 Chloroacetophenone and chlorobenzylidene malononitrile......Page 83
REFERENCES......Page 84
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 88
6.2.1 Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS)......Page 89
Cyanogenic potential of CS......Page 92
6.2.2 Dibenz[b, f]1:4-oxazepine (CR)......Page 93
6.3.1 Ophthalmic toxicology......Page 94
o-Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile......Page 95
Chloroacetophenone......Page 96
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile......Page 97
6.3.3 Cutaneous toxicology......Page 100
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile......Page 101
Dibenz[b,f]1:4-oxazepine......Page 102
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile......Page 103
6.3.5 Endocrine toxicology......Page 104
6.4 TOXICOLOGY OF RCA FORMULATIONS......Page 105
6.5 THERMAL DEGRADATION PRODUCTS OF RCAs......Page 106
6.6 TOXICOLOGY OF RCA CARRIERS/SOLVENTS......Page 107
Acute and repeated-dose toxicity......Page 109
Disposition and metabolism......Page 111
Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and developmental/reproductive effects......Page 112
Acute and repeated-dose toxicity......Page 113
Disposition and metabolism......Page 114
Mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and developmental/reproductive effects......Page 115
Acute and repeated-dose toxicity......Page 116
Acute and repeated-dose toxicity......Page 117
6.6.8 Defense spray propellants......Page 118
1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane......Page 119
REFERENCES......Page 120
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 131
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 132
7.2 SENSORY IRRITATION: OLEORESIN CAPSICUM AND CAPSAICIN/CAPSAICINOIDS......Page 133
7.3 PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY OF OLEORESIN CAPSICUM, CAPSAICIN/CAPSAICINOIDS......Page 134
7.3.1 Repeated-dose toxicity of OC and capsaicin/capsaicinoids......Page 138
7.3.3 Mutagenesis and carcinogenesis of OC and capsaicin/capsaicinoids......Page 139
7.4 HUMAN PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY OF OC AND CAPSAICIN/CAPSAICINOIDS......Page 140
REFERENCES......Page 143
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 152
8.2.1 Inhalation......Page 154
8.2.3 Acute persistent – eye......Page 156
8.2.5 Acute persistent – skin......Page 157
8.3.2 Inhalation......Page 158
8.3.4 Acute persistent – eye......Page 159
8.3.6 Acute persistent – skin......Page 160
8.4.2 Inhalation......Page 161
8.5.2 Inhalation......Page 162
8.5.4 Skin – human......Page 163
8.6 OC......Page 164
8.7 VAN......Page 165
REFERENCES......Page 166
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 170
9.2.1 Chloroacetophenone......Page 171
9.2.2 o-Chlorobenzyl malononitrile......Page 172
9.2.3 Oleoresin capsicum (“pepper spray”)......Page 174
9.3.1 Adamsite......Page 175
9.3.3 Chloropicrin......Page 176
9.4.2 Methyl isobutyl ketone......Page 177
9.4.4 Propylene Glycol......Page 178
9.5.2 Limonene......Page 179
9.5.6 Benzene......Page 180
9.5.7 Carbon tetrachloride and chloroform......Page 181
9.5.8 Butanol and freon 134a......Page 182
9.6 STRESS AND DEVELOPMENTAL EFFECTS......Page 183
9.6.3 Stress as a co-teratogen......Page 184
9.6.4 Heat shock protein and its role in maternal stress and teratogenesis......Page 185
REFERENCES......Page 186
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 192
10.2.2 Mammalian cell mutation......Page 193
10.2.4 Micronuclei formation......Page 194
10.3 TEST RESULTS BY AGENT......Page 195
CS binds proteins......Page 196
CS and bacterial mutagenesis......Page 198
10.3.3 Genotoxicity of CR (Dibenz[b,f]1:4-oxazepine)......Page 199
10.3.4 Genotoxicity of capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide)......Page 200
Carcinogenicity, cocarcinogenicity and anticarcinogenic activity......Page 201
Micronucleus......Page 202
REFERENCES......Page 206
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 210
11.2.2 Inhalation......Page 211
11.2.5 Tear gas gun injuries......Page 212
11.2.7 Acute persistent – inhalation......Page 213
11.2.9 Acute delayed – sensitization......Page 214
11.3.2 Eye effects......Page 215
11.3.3 Inhalation......Page 216
11.3.6 Skin......Page 219
11.3.9 Acute persistent – inhalation......Page 221
11.3.10 Acute persistent – skin......Page 223
11.4.1 Thresholds......Page 224
11.4.4 Skin......Page 225
11.5.1 Thresholds......Page 226
Nose effects......Page 227
11.5.3 Ingestion......Page 228
11.6.1 Eye......Page 229
11.6.3 Ingestion......Page 230
11.6.6 Acute persistent – inhalation......Page 231
11.6.7 Acute persistent – skin......Page 232
11.7.1 Skin......Page 233
REFERENCES......Page 234
12.1.1 Historical aspects and generalizations......Page 240
12.2 AGENTS USED IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS......Page 242
12.2.1 On the nature and effects of PSI materials......Page 244
12.3 APPROACHES AND METHODS FOR THE GENERATION AND DISPERSAL OF RCAS......Page 247
12.4 ASSESSMENT OF THE OPERATIONAL USE AND ADVANTAGE OF RIOT CONTROL PROCEDURES IN THE LIGHT OF SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 248
12.5.1 Toxicology......Page 250
12.5.2 Human volunteer studies......Page 252
12.6.1 Physical injuries......Page 253
12.6.2 Chemical injuries......Page 254
12.7 DECONTAMINATION, FIRST-AID AND MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF CASUALTIES IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS......Page 255
Skin......Page 256
General and unusual......Page 257
12.8 ROLE AND EXPECTATIONS OF THE COMPETENT AUTHORITIES IN PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS......Page 258
12.9 THE ADVISORY ROLE OF THE FORENSIC EXPERT IN PEACEKEEPING SITUATIONS......Page 260
REFERENCES......Page 261
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 268
13.2 RISK CHARACTERIZATION FRAMEWORK......Page 269
13.2.1 Effects identification......Page 271
13.2.2 Dose–response......Page 272
13.2.3 Exposure assessment......Page 274
Interindividual factors......Page 275
13.2.4 Risk characterization......Page 277
REFERENCES......Page 279
14.2 CN......Page 282
14.3 CS......Page 283
14.4 OC......Page 285
14.5 REGULATORY STATUS AND WORKER PROTECTION......Page 287
REFERENCES......Page 288
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 290
15.2 PUBLIC HEALTH GOALS, RISK MANAGEMENT, AND REGULATORY PROCESS......Page 291
15.3 BENEFITS DERIVED FROM THE AVAILABILITY AND USE OF RCA PRODUCTS......Page 294
15.3.1 Law enforcement and military needs......Page 295
15.3.2 Individual consumers for personal protection......Page 297
15.4 CATEGORIZING KNOWN AND POTENTIAL HAZARDS ATTRIBUTED TO RCAs......Page 298
15.5.2 Precautionary approach......Page 300
15.6 STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING RCA RISKS......Page 302
15.6.1 Identification and selection of riot control compounds for use......Page 303
15.6.3 Education and awareness to those intentionally or incidentally exposed......Page 304
15.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 305
REFERENCES......Page 306
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 307
16.2 O-CHLOROBENZYLIDENE MALONONITRILE......Page 308
16.2.2 Aquatic toxicity......Page 309
16.3 2-CHLOROACETOPHENONE......Page 311
16.3.1 Environmental fate in soil......Page 312
16.4 DIBENZ[b,f ]1:4-OXAZEPINE......Page 313
16.5.1 Capsicum chemistry......Page 315
16.5.2 Biodegradation of capsicum compounds......Page 316
16.5.3 Oleoresin capsicum ecotoxicity......Page 317
16.7.1 Sorption equilibrium......Page 318
16.7.3 Sorption of mixtures......Page 319
REFERENCES......Page 320
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 326
17.2 TOXICOLOGY OF RCAS......Page 327
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 328
18.1 ISSUES AND CONCERNS......Page 330
18.2 NEEDS......Page 332
18.3.1 Advances......Page 333
18.3.2 Recommendations......Page 334
REFERENCES......Page 335
DISCLAIMER NOTICE......Page 336
APPENDIX A: Definitions and Terminology......Page 338
B.1 DECONTAMINATION......Page 344
B.2.3 Inhalation exposure......Page 345
REFERENCES......Page 346
APPENDIX C: Table of Riot Control Agent Formulations......Page 348
Subject Index (with page links)......Page 352
Back Page......Page 363