Revolutionizing Aircraft Materials and Processes

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Historical Development of Aeronautical Materials
	1 The First Man in the Air
	2 The First Metallic Aircrafts
	3 The Era of Composite Materials
	4 The H2020 Vision
	5 Toward Composite Aircrafts
	6 The Flightpath 2050
	7 Materials of the Future
	8 Novel Manufacturing Techniques and Simulation-Driven Design
	9 Adhesive Bonding Technology
	References
Chapter 2: Aircraft Aluminum Alloys: Applications and Future Trends
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Brief Historical Overview
	2 Aircraft Aluminum Alloys
		2.1 Classification and Composition
			2.1.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys
			2.1.2 Cast Aluminum Alloys
			2.1.3 Heat-Treatable (Precipitation-Hardenable) Aluminum Alloys
		2.2 Alloying Element Concentration
		2.3 Temper Designation
	3 Performance, Development, and Applications
		3.1 Material Performance
		3.2 Aluminum Alloy Development for Aircraft Applications
			3.2.1 Wrought Aluminum Alloys
				2XXX Series Alloys
				6XXX Series Alloys
				7XXX Series Alloys
			3.2.2 Al–Li Alloys
			3.2.3 Cast Aluminum Alloys
	4 Innovation in Processing Technology
		4.1 Manufacturing
			4.1.1 High-Speed Machining from Thick Plate
			4.1.2 Rolling
			4.1.3 Cold/Hot Forming
				Stretch Forming
				Stamping
				Superplastic Forming (SPF)
				Quick Plastic Forming (QPF)
				Age Forming
			4.1.4 Extrusion
			4.1.5 Forging
			4.1.6 Additive Manufacturing
		4.2 Welding
			4.2.1 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)
			4.2.2 Laser Beam Welding
		4.3 Recycling
	5 Current and Future Technological Challenges
		5.1 Novel Materials Research
			5.1.1 Lithium and Scandium
			5.1.2 Nanocrystalline Alloys and Hybrid Materials
				Nanostructured Aluminum Alloys
				Fiber-Metal Laminates
				Aluminum Composites
			5.1.3 Hybrid Materials Joining
	References
Chapter 3: Thermosetting Composite Materials in Aerostructures
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Resins/Prepolymer
		1.2 Reinforcements
			1.2.1 Carbon Fibre
		1.3 Continuous Fibre Reinforced Composites
		1.4 Evolution of Composites in Aircraft Structures
	2 State-of-the-Art
		2.1 Advantages/Disadvantages of Composites
		2.2 Manufacturing Processes and Automation
			2.2.1 Material Placement
				Hand Layup
				Filament Winding
				Tape Laying Machines
				Fibre Placement Machines
			2.2.2 Forming and Cure
				Autoclave
				Out-of-Autoclave (OOA)
				Other Methods
			2.2.3 Recent Developments in Composite Aircraft Manufacturing
				Boeing 787 Dreamliner
				Airbus A350 XWB
				Bombardier CSeries (Airbus A220)
				Irkut MC-21
			2.2.4 Process Modelling
		2.3 Design and Assembly
		2.4 Maintenance
	3 Research Challenges
		3.1 Repair
		3.2 Multifunctionality
			3.2.1 Lightning Strike Protection (LSP)
			3.2.2 Anti-Icing/De-Icing (AI/DI)
		3.3 Recycling
			3.3.1 Mechanical Processing
			3.3.2 Fibre Reclamation Processing
				Fluidised Bed Methods
				Pyrolysis Methods
				Chemical Methods
			3.3.3 Alternative Resin Chemistries
	4 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 4: Thermoplastic Composites for Aerospace Applications
	1 Introduction to Thermoplastic Composites
	2 Polymer Chemistry
	3 Thermoplastic Manufacturing Processes
		3.1 Thermoforming Process
		3.2 Continuous Compression Molding
		3.3 Pultrusion
		3.4 Laser-Assisted Automated Fiber Placement (AFP)/Automated Tape Laying (ATL) and In Situ Consolidation (ISC) Process
	4 Joining Processes
		4.1 Fusion Bonding or Welding
		4.2 Induction Welding (IW)
	5 Thermoplastics and Thermosets Recycling
	6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 5: Additive Manufacturing: Design (Topology Optimization), Materials, and Processes
	1 Introduction
	2 Topology Optimization
		2.1 Solid Isotropic Material with Penalization (SIMP)
		2.2 Evolutionary Structural Optimization Method
		2.3 Bidirectional Evolutionary Structural Optimization (BESO)
		2.4 Demonstration of Topology Optimization Processes in Aeronautical Parts and Structures
	3 Additive Manufacturing (AM) Process Variations
		3.1 Powder Bed Fusion
		3.2 Directed Energy Deposition
		3.3 Vat Photopolymerization
		3.4 Material Extrusion
		3.5 Material Jetting
		3.6 Sheet Lamination
		3.7 Binder Jetting
	4 Outlook
	References
Chapter 6: Cellular and Sandwich Materials
	1 Introduction to Cellular and Sandwich Materials for Aeronautical Structures
	2 Types of Regular Lattice Cellular Cores
	3 Main Production Technologies of Cellular Cores
	4 Analysis and Simulation of Lattice Cellular Cores
	5 Analysis and Simulation of Sandwich Structures with Cellular Cores
	6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Integral, Disruptive, and Multifunctional Aircraft Structures
	1 Introduction
	2 Damage-Tolerant Design of Bonded Joints: Concept of Disbond-Arrest Features
		2.1 Damage-Tolerant Design Approach
			2.1.1 The Concept of Disbond-Arrest Features
		2.2 Design and Functionality of Disbond-Arrest Features
			2.2.1 Disbond-Arrest Mechanisms in Bonded Joints
			2.2.2 Disbond-Arrest Feature for Bonded Joints
				Through-the-Thickness Reinforcement
				Hybrid Bondline
		2.3 Design Methodology
		2.4 Application to High-Load Transfer Joints
		2.5 Concluding Remarks
	3 Damage-Tolerant Design of Integral Stringer-Skin Structures: Concept of Selective Stitching
		3.1 Stitching Technologies Within the Composite Manufacturing Process
		3.2 The Influence of Stitching Reinforcement on the Mechanical Properties of a Laminate
		3.3 Selective Stitching and the PRSEUS Concept
		3.4 Damage-Tolerance Enhancement
		3.5 Application: Seven-Point Bending (7PB) Test
		3.6 Concluding Remarks
	4 Multifunctional Sandwich Structures
		4.1 State of the Art in Multifunctional Sandwich Structures
		4.2 New Multifunctional Core Concepts
		4.3 Concluding Remarks
	5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8: Nano-enabled Multifunctional Materials: Mechanical Behavior and Multi-scale Modeling
	1 Introduction
	2 Types of MM
		2.1 Carbon Nanomaterials
		2.2 Functionally Graded Materials
		2.3 Piezoelectric Materials
		2.4 Shape Memory Materials
		2.5 Others
			2.5.1 Self-Healing Materials
	3 Aircraft Applications
		3.1 Multifunctional Spars
		3.2 Electronic Damping
		3.3 Morphing Aerosurfaces
	4 Mechanical Behavior of Nanocomposites
		4.1 Tensile Behavior of MWCNT/PP Nanocomposite
		4.2 Effect of Hygrothermal Aging on the Tensile Behavior of MWCNT/PA6 Nanocomposite
			4.2.1 Experimental
			4.2.2 Results
		4.3 MWCNT/GPOSS/RTM6-2 Nanocomposite
			4.3.1 Experimental
			4.3.2 Tensile Properties
			4.3.3 Compressive Strength
			4.3.4 Flexural Properties
			4.3.5 Fracture Toughness Tests
		4.4 MWCNT/GPOSS/CFRP Composite
			4.4.1 Experimental
			4.4.2 Impact Behavior
			4.4.3 CAI Behavior
	5 Mechanical Behavior of Self-Healing Materials
		5.1 Experimental
			5.1.1 Self-Healing Efficiency
		5.2 ILSS Behavior
		5.3 Healing Efficiency
	6 Multi-scale Modeling of Nanocomposites
		6.1 Towards a Simulation-Driven Design of Nano-enabled MM
		6.2 Prediction of Mechanical Properties of MWCNT/CFRP Parts
		6.3 Parametric Evaluation of Elastic, Thermal, and Electrical Properties of CNT/Polymers
	7 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9: Biopolymers and Biocomposites
	1 Introduction
	2 Bio-based Polymers
		2.1 Bio-based Thermoplastics
			2.1.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
			2.1.2 Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and the Others
	3 Bio-based Thermosets
		3.1 Rosin-Sourced Epoxy and Curing Agents
		3.2 Epoxy Resin Based on Itaconic Acid
	4 Biocomposites with Rosin-Sourced Epoxy as Matrix Resin
	5 Plant-Fiber-Reinforced Biocomposites
		5.1 Plant Fibers as Reinforcing Component of Biocomposites
			5.1.1 Surface Treatment for Plant Fibers
	6 Surface Modification by Nanoparticles
	7 Structural and Functional Properties of Laminated Biocomposites
		7.1 Interply Hybrid Modification
		7.2 Structural Damping and Acoustic Properties
	8 Flame-Retarded Biopolymers and Biocomposites
		8.1 Flammability Study of Natural Fiber Composite
		8.2 Flammability Study by Using Microcrystalline Cellulose
	9 Hygrothermal Aging of PFRCs
	10 Industrial Applications for Biopolymers and Biocomposites
	References
Chapter 10: Self-Healing Mechanisms in Multifunctional Structural Materials
	1 Development of Aeronautical Composites Characterized by Autonomous Self-Repair Mechanisms
	2 Enabling Self-Healing Properties Toward the Functional Materials of the Future
	3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Laser Joining Processes for Lightweight Aircraft Structures
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloys
		1.2 Laser Processes for Aluminum-Titanium(-CFRP) Joints
		1.3 Laser Processes for HLFC Structures
	References
Chapter 12: Adhesive Bonding of Aircraft Structures
	1 Introduction
	2 The Evolution of Adhesive Bonding in Aircraft Structures
	3 Adhesive Materials
	4 Bonding Process
		4.1 Processing and Equipment
		4.2 Surface Treatment
		4.3 Quality Assurance
	5 NDT Characterization
		5.1 Current Practice
			5.1.1 Pre-bond NDT
			5.1.2 After-Bond NDT
		5.2 Extended NDT
	6 Destructive Characterization
	7 Design Aspects and Certification
		7.1 Modular Joining Elements
		7.2 Certification of Bonded Composite Primary Aircraft Structures
	8 Conclusions and Discussion
	References
Chapter 13: Bonded Repair of Composite Structures
	1 Introduction
	2 Allowable Damage and Repair Classification
		2.1 General
		2.2 Common Types of Damage
		2.3 Damage Inspection: Evaluation
	3 Typical Repair Materials and Equipment
		3.1 Composite Repair and Vacuum Bagging Materials
		3.2 Bonding Consoles and Heating Elements
		3.3 Surface Preparation Toolkits
		3.4 NDT Equipment
	4 Standard Composite Repair Procedures
		4.1 Selection of Repair Method and Repair Materials
		4.2 Removal of Water from Damaged Area
		4.3 Remove Damage and Prepare for Repair
		4.4 Preparation of Damaged Areas
		4.5 Preparation of Repair Plies
		4.6 Lay-Up/Bagging Procedure
		4.7 Curing of the Repair
		4.8 Post-repair Inspection and Finishing
	5 Latest Composite Repair Innovations and R&I Areas
		5.1 Repairs Using OLGA for Patch Preparation (to Overcome Porosity Issues) and Secondary Bonding on Aircraft
		5.2 Problems in Achieving Homogeneity During Repair Co-curing on Thick Geometrically Complex Structures
		5.3 Increased Quality Control Requirements During Repair Operations on Complex Structures
		5.4 Development of Digital / Physical Twin of Composite Repair
		5.5 Heating for Quick Repairs of Limited Dimensions
		5.6 Consumable Heating Blankets
		5.7 Magnetostrictive Technology: Ensure Bonding Adequacy/Durability for SHM (Structural Health Monitoring) and Certification Requirements
		5.8 Out-of-Autoclave (OOA) Heating Solution for Production and Repair of Composites
		5.9 Heating Pins: Heating Bolts
		5.10 ANITA Remote Control Tablet (ARCT)
	6 Conclusions
	References
Index