Rethinking Cybercrime: Critical Debates

Acknowledgments
Introduction
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Theoretical Explorations
CyberTerrorism: Some Insights from Owen’s Genetic-Social Framework
	1 Introduction
	2 Genetic-Social Framework
	3 Forms of Cyberterrorism and Some Possible Explanations
	4 Building a Possibly Predictive Model of Cyberterrorism
	5 Concluding Observations
	References
Vygotsky and Internet Grooming: The Darker Side of ZPD and Scaffolding
	1 Vygotsky and Internet Grooming: The Darker Side of Scaffolding
		1.1 Encourage the Child’s Interest in the Task
		1.2 Simplify the Task by Reducing the Number of Possible Actions that the Child Could Carry Out
		1.3 Keeping the Child in Pursuit of a Particular Objective
		1.4 Marking the Critical Features of the Task
		1.5 Controlling the Child’s Frustration During Problem Solving
		1.6 Demonstrating Solutions to the Child or Explaining the Solutions that the Child Has Partially Completed
	2 Discussion
	3 Conclusion
	References
The Criminalisation of Tools Under the Computer Misuse Act 1990. The Need to Rethink Cybercrime Offences to Effectively Protect Legitimate Activities and Deter Cybercriminals
	1 Introduction
	2 The Foreseen Criminalisation of Dual-Use Hacking Tools Under s3A CMA
		2.1 The Dual Nature of Hacking Tools
		2.2 To Criminalise or not to Criminalise? The Contrasting Position of s3A CMA with that of Article 6 of the Convention on Cybercrime n.185
		2.3 A Confirmed Choice Contrasting with that of the Directive 2013/40/EU
	3 The Unwitting Criminalisation of Obfuscating Tools Under s3A CMA
		3.1 The Dual Use of Obfuscating Tools
		3.2 The Non-criminalisation of Obfuscating Tools in International Law
		3.3 The Criminalisation of Obfuscating Tools Under UK Law and Its Impact on Newsgathering Practices
	4 Remedying the Weaknesses of s3A CMA and Beyond
		4.1 The Need to Reform the Computer Misuse Act 1990
		4.2 Beyond s3A CMA: A Call for a More Balanced Approach to the Criminalisation of Cybercrime Activities
	5 Conclusion
	References
A Short History of Hacktivism: Its Past and Present and What Can We Learn from It
	1 Introduction
	2 The 1st Era of Hacktivism
		2.1 The Birth of Hacktivism and Relevant Groups
		2.2 Initial Conclusions from the 1st Era
	3 The Second Era of Hacktivism
		3.1 The Domination of Anonymous
		3.2 Tactics and Operations
		3.3 Conclusions from the Second Era
	4 Overall Conclusions and the Future of Hacktivism
	References
Assuming Identities Online: How Linguistics Is Helping the Policing of Online Grooming and the Distribution of Abusive Images
	1 Introduction
	2 Forensic Linguistics
	3 Language and Identity Online
	4 Training Identity Synthesis
	5 Experiments
	6 Conclusion
	References
The Need to Think Beyond Objective Territoriality to Better Protect the Rights of the Suspect of a Cybercrime
	1 Introduction
	2 The Spillover Effect of Cybercrimes
	3 The Limits of Objective Territoriality in the Cybercrime Context
		3.1 The Inherent Lack of Legal Foreseeability
		3.2 A Real Risk of Multiple Prosecutions
			3.2.1 The Lack of International Rule to Solve Positive Conflicts of Territorial Jurisdiction
			3.2.2 The Limits of Ne Bis in Idem in a Transnational Context
	4 Exploring Active Personality as an Alternative to Objective Territoriality
	References
Images of Violence and Atrocity in Modern Media
	1 Pre-Internet Era
		1.1 Snuff Films
		1.2 Mondo Documentaries
	2 Dramas
	3 Websites
	4 Red Rooms—Urban Myth?
	5 Facebook Live Streams and Social Media
		5.1 Cartel Executions
		5.2 The Facebook Killer
		5.3 The Black Lives Matter Tortures
		5.4 Swedish Rape Gang
		5.5 Wuttisan Wongtalay Murder and Suicide
		5.6 Abu Marwan Facebook Live Stream
		5.7 Terrorism and Terrorist Attacks
		5.8 Narcissism
		5.9 Social Media Responsibilities?
	6 Conclusion
	Bibliography
Policy Implications
Can Risk Society and the Ideology of Motherhood Explain the Continued Hostility Towards the McCanns on Social Media?
	1 Small-scale Research: Analysis of an On-line Discussion Thread
	2 Reflections on the Thread
	3 Concluding Remarks
	Appendices 1
	References
‘In and Out, On and Off: LGBT+ Online Experiences’
	1 Introduction
	2 Off Limits? LGBT+ Lives Offline
		2.1 Living on the Edge? Young LGBT+ Lives Offline
		2.2 Invisible Attraction: Older LGBT+ Lives Offline
		2.3 The Cyberqueer: LGBT+ Lives Online
		2.4 Online and in Trouble? LGBT+ Youth Online
		2.5 Sharks and Silver Surfers: LGBT+ Older People Online
		2.6 Thinking Through the Matrix
	3 Conclusion
	References
The Internet-of-Things: A Surveillance Wonderland
	1 Introduction
	2 Defining the Internet-of-Things (IoT)
		2.1 IoT Vulnerabilities
		2.2 The Legislative Framework
		2.3 European Initiatives: Privacy by Design and Default
			2.3.1 Privacy-by-Design
			2.3.2 Security-by-Design
	3 A Hacking Wonderland
	4 The Increasing Surveillance Culture
		4.1 Governmental Actors and Surveillance
			4.1.1 A Governmental IoT Surveillance
			4.1.2 Smart TV Surveillance
		4.2 Private Data Surveillance
			4.2.1 Businesses’ IoT Surveillance
			4.2.2 Smart TV Surveillance
	5 Conclusion
	References
Routine Activity Theory and Cybercrime Investigation in Nigeria: How Capable Are Law Enforcement Agencies?
	1 Introduction
	2 Problem Statement
	3 Research Objective
	4 Research Question
	5 Literature Review
		5.1 Cybercrime in Nigeria
		5.2 Cybercrime Advisory Council (CAC)
			5.2.1 Functions and Powers of the Council
		5.3 Limitations to Tackling Cybercrime
			5.3.1 Technology and Training
			5.3.2 Laws and Jurisdiction
			5.3.3 Education and Awareness
	6 Theoretical Framework
		6.1 Routine Activity Theory
		6.2 Absence of a Capable Guardian
	7 Methodology
		7.1 Research Participants
	8 Findings
		8.1 Awareness Campaign
		8.2 Best Practices
		8.3 Enforcement
		8.4 Funding and Logistics
		8.5 Partnership
		8.6 Training and Manpower
		8.7 Benefits of Measures
	9 Discussions
		9.1 Absence of a Capable Guardian
		9.2 Bureaucracy
		9.3 Laws and Jurisdiction
		9.4 Technology
		9.5 Inadequate Funding and Tools
		9.6 Inadequate Training and Education
	10 Conclusion
	References
Online Grooming: An Exploration into the Genetic-Social Variables Which Enable Victimisation
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Perceptions of Paedophilia
	2 The Variables that Enable Child Victimisation
		2.1 Access and Supervision
	3 Shifting Patterns of Perception
	4 Policing and Criminalisation
		4.1 Explanation and Examples of the Genetic-Social Framework (Owen 2012)
		4.2 Limitations of Existing Research and Drawing upon the Genetic-Social Framework (Owen 2012)
	Bibliography
Index