Restoration of boreal and temperate forests

RESTORATION OF BOREAL AND TEMPERATE FORESTS......Page 3
Series statement: Integrative studies in water management and land development......Page 5
Foreword by series editor: Addressing the once and future forest......Page 6
References......Page 7
Preface......Page 8
About the Editors......Page 17
Contributors......Page 18
Contents......Page 23
Part 1: Introduction......Page 26
1.2 Historical context......Page 27
1.3 Degradation and restoration processes......Page 29
1.3.1 Degradation processes......Page 30
1.4 Restoration terms......Page 31
References......Page 33
Part 2: The Ecological Context for Forest Restoration......Page 36
2.1 Introduction......Page 37
2.2 The distribution of natural forest within the boreal and temperate zones......Page 38
2.3 Species composition and genetic structure of natural forest......Page 40
2.4.1 Fire......Page 42
2.4.2 Browsing animals......Page 44
2.4.4 Human influences......Page 46
2.5 Other important characteristics of natural forest systems......Page 47
2.6 Conclusions......Page 49
References......Page 50
3.1 Introduction......Page 53
3.2 People and forests......Page 54
3.3.2 Changing paradigm......Page 55
3.3.3 Stand development stages......Page 57
3.5 Landscape patterns......Page 59
3.6.1 Silvicultural operations......Page 61
3.6.2 Silvicultural pathways......Page 62
3.6.2.1 No action pathway......Page 64
3.6.2.2 Single-species and single-cohort pathways......Page 65
3.6.2.3 Mixed-species and single-cohort pathways......Page 66
3.6.2.4 Multiple-cohort pathways......Page 70
3.8 Paying for restoration......Page 76
References......Page 77
4.1 Introduction......Page 82
4.2.1 The Colorado front range subalpine spruce-fir forests......Page 84
4.2.1.3 Blowdown in subalpine forests of Colorado......Page 85
4.2.1.5 Forest management and disturbance in subalpine forests......Page 86
4.2.2.1 Fire in northern hardwood forests......Page 87
4.2.2.2 Insect outbreaks in northern hardwood forests......Page 88
4.2.2.3 Blowdown in mixed deciduous forests of the northeastern U.S.......Page 89
4.2.2.4 Anthropogenic disturbance in broadleaf deciduous forests of the eastern U.S.......Page 90
4.3 Conclusions......Page 91
References......Page 93
5.1 Introduction......Page 98
5.2 Conceptual framework for evaluating ecosystem responses to restoration......Page 101
5.3 Restoration of N cycling processes in degraded riparian zones......Page 102
5.3.1 Study sites......Page 103
5.3.5 Nitrogen trace gas sampling......Page 104
5.3.7 Nitrogen cycling responses to riparian zone restoration......Page 105
5.4.2 Burning methods and sample collection and analysis......Page 109
5.4.3 Effects of fire on stream NO3?......Page 110
References......Page 113
Part 3: The Sociopolitical Context for Restoration......Page 116
6.1 Introduction......Page 117
6.2 Costs and benefits of restoration policy options......Page 118
6.2.1 Mandatory approaches......Page 119
6.2.2 Voluntary approaches......Page 123
6.3 Measuring success......Page 126
6.4 Conclusions......Page 127
References......Page 128
7.1 Introduction......Page 130
7.2. United Nations climate convention and Kyoto Protocol......Page 132
7.3.2 Additionality......Page 133
7.3.4 Saturation......Page 134
7.4 Monitoring and estimation of carbon uptake through forest restoration......Page 135
7.5 Restoration with a carbon component......Page 136
References......Page 138
8.1 Introduction......Page 140
8.2 History of afforestation in Europe......Page 141
8.3 Afforestation policy of the EU......Page 143
8.4.1 Afforestation objectives and targets......Page 144
8.4.2.3 Social context is increasingly important......Page 146
8.5.1 Further increase of European forest areas......Page 147
8.5.3 New approaches......Page 148
8.6 Conclusions......Page 149
References......Page 150
Part 4: The Practice of Forest Restoration......Page 155
9.1 Introduction......Page 156
9.2 The seed procurement context......Page 157
9.2.2 Conservation of genetic resources......Page 159
9.3 From wild populations to improved material......Page 160
9.3.4 Gains of tree breeding......Page 161
9.3.5 Management of diversity in breeding programs......Page 162
9.3.6 Role of biotechnology......Page 163
9.4 Legislation, regulation, and control of genetic quality......Page 164
References......Page 165
10.1 Introduction......Page 169
10.2.2 Dispersal......Page 172
10.2.3 Storage, germination, and succulent stage......Page 174
10.2.4 Establishment......Page 175
10.3 Natural regeneration techniques......Page 176
10.3.1 Shelterwood and seed-tree systems......Page 177
10.3.2 Selection systems......Page 178
10.3.5 Competing vegetation......Page 179
10.4.1 Direct seeding......Page 180
10.4.2 Planting......Page 181
References......Page 182
11.1 Introduction......Page 188
11.3 Fitting cultural practices to restoration goals......Page 190
11.4 Fire as a disturbance agent in temperate and boreal forests......Page 192
11.5 Fire exclusion and the decline of fire-dependent ecosystems......Page 193
11.6.1 Maintaining oaks on productive sites in the eastern U.S.......Page 194
11.6.2 Maintaining Table Mountain/pitch pine ecosystems in the southern Appalachians......Page 195
11.7 Cultural practices for restoring and maintaining ecosystem function in boreal forests......Page 197
11.7.1 Restoring coarse woody debris and biodiversity to the managed forests of Sweden......Page 199
11.7.3 Mixed-wood management in Canada’s southern boreal forest......Page 200
11.7.4 Landscape-scale burning in Alaska......Page 201
11.8 Conclusions......Page 202
References......Page 203
Part 5: Case Studies: Afforestation......Page 208
12.1 Introduction......Page 209
12.2.1 Physiography......Page 210
12.2.2 History of the birch woodlands......Page 211
12.2.3 Characteristics and distribution of the birch woodlands......Page 212
12.2.5 Land ownership and land tenure......Page 213
12.3.1 Afforestation in Iceland......Page 214
12.3.2.1 Goals......Page 215
12.3.2.3.1 Planting......Page 216
12.3.2.3.2 Direct seeding......Page 217
12.3.2.3.4 Restoration strategies......Page 218
12.4 Economic, social, and political contexts......Page 219
12.5 Conclusions......Page 220
References......Page 221
13.1 Landscape history......Page 224
13.2 Climate......Page 225
13.3.2 Cutting, grazing, and fire......Page 226
13.3.3 The complete ecological disaster......Page 227
13.3.4 An aid project of the 19th century......Page 228
13.3.5 How was the reclamation done?......Page 230
13.3.7 Afforestation in eastern Denmark, 1800 to 1950......Page 231
13.4.1 Changing goals — like a moving target......Page 232
13.4.2 Public afforestation......Page 233
13.4.3 How is afforestation done today?......Page 234
13.4.5 Regional planning — where is afforestation wanted?......Page 235
13.4.7 The afforestation program is behind schedule......Page 236
References......Page 237
14.1 Introduction......Page 238
14.3 History......Page 239
14.4.1 Species selection......Page 242
14.4.2 Site preparation......Page 243
14.4.6 Protection and tending......Page 244
14.5 Research needs......Page 245
References......Page 246
15.1 Introduction......Page 248
15.2 Physiography, climate, soils......Page 249
15.3 The Forest......Page 251
15.4 Current land ownership and use in the LMAV......Page 254
15.5 Restoration policy, goals, and objectives......Page 255
15.6 Previous restoration and extent of current restoration needs......Page 256
15.7 Restoration techniques......Page 257
15.8 Costs of restoration techniques and expected benefits......Page 260
15.9 Research, management, and policy needs......Page 261
References......Page 262
16.1 Introduction......Page 265
16.2.2 Ownership......Page 266
16.2.3 Historic uses and values......Page 267
16.2.4 Oak woodland losses......Page 268
16.3.1 What is the dehesa?......Page 269
16.3.4 Poor natural regeneration......Page 270
16.4.1 Acorn collection, storage, and planting......Page 271
16.4.2 Seedling propagation......Page 272
16.4.3.3 Planting densities......Page 274
16.5.1 California......Page 275
References......Page 276
Part 6: Case Studies: Rehabilitation......Page 279
17.1 Introduction......Page 280
17.2.4 Structure......Page 282
17.2.6 Data needs......Page 283
17.2.7 Combining data and tools......Page 284
17.3.1.1 Quantitative gap analysis......Page 285
17.3.2.1 Habitat modeling......Page 286
17.3.3 Operational planning......Page 287
17.3.4 Communication of status and trends of forest ecosystems......Page 290
References......Page 291
18.1 Ecological characteristics of forested ecosystems in Finland......Page 295
18.2 History of utilization and current status of forests in Finland......Page 297
18.3 Principles and methods of forest restoration......Page 299
18.3.1 Methods of forest restoration on mineral soils......Page 301
18.4.1 Restoration in protected forests......Page 302
18.4.2 Restoration in managed forests......Page 303
18.5 Future prospects and challenges of restoration......Page 304
References......Page 305
19.1 Denmark: A case of forest rehabilitation......Page 309
19.1.1 Ecological–historical background......Page 310
19.1.2 Economical, social, and political background......Page 311
19.1.3 Forest rehabilitation goals......Page 313
19.2.1 Silviculture of nature-based forestry......Page 314
19.2.2 Economy of nature-based forestry......Page 317
19.2.3 Implementation of nature-based forestry......Page 318
19.3.1.2 Problems......Page 319
19.3.1.3 Means and strategies......Page 321
19.3.2.2 Problems......Page 323
19.3.2.3 Means and strategies......Page 324
Acknowledgments......Page 325
References......Page 326
Contents......Page 328
20.2 A brief history of forestry in Great Britain......Page 329
20.3.2 Commercial forestry and PAWS......Page 332
20.3.3 Classification of semi-natural woodlands......Page 333
20.3.3.4 Upland mixed ash......Page 336
20.5 Aims of restoration......Page 337
20.6.3 Economics......Page 338
20.8 Choosing target woodland type......Page 340
20.9 Selecting sites to restore......Page 341
20.10.1.1 Example — Ampfield Wood......Page 342
20.10.3 Forest Enterprise, Loch Lomond, and Trossachs National Park......Page 343
20.10.4 The Woodland Trust......Page 344
20.10.5.1 Example — Coed Tamsin......Page 345
References......Page 346
21.1 Introduction......Page 348
21.2 Distribution of Norway spruce......Page 349
21.3 Management of Norway spruce......Page 350
21.4 The question of conversion......Page 351
21.4.3 How should conversion be accomplished?......Page 352
21.5 Future research needs......Page 354
References......Page 355
22.1 Introduction......Page 357
22.2 Silvicultural treatments......Page 358
22.3 Seed storage and handling......Page 359
22.4 Sowing technique......Page 360
22.5 Costs......Page 361
Reference......Page 362
23.1.1 Background......Page 363
23.1.3 Forest restoration......Page 366
23.2.1 Woody accompanying species......Page 367
23.2.2 Cover plant mixtures to control competition......Page 369
23.3 Converting fallow land into more sustainable forest stands......Page 370
23.3.2 Planting late-successional species......Page 371
23.4 From monospecific coniferous to mixed coniferous?broadleaved stands......Page 373
23.4.2 Artificial regeneration......Page 374
References......Page 375
24.1 Introduction......Page 378
24.3 Coppice forests......Page 380
24.5 Test case — Kamikawa village......Page 381
24.6 Diversity in abandoned coppice......Page 382
24.7 Understory response to gap creation......Page 383
24.8 Canopy tree response to gap creation......Page 384
24.10 Research needs......Page 385
References......Page 386
Contents......Page 389
25.1 Biogeography of the Korean Peninsula......Page 390
25.1.2 Forests of the ROK......Page 391
25.1.3 Historical vegetation change......Page 392
25.2.1.3 Third 10-year plan 1988 to 1997 ? establishment of multifunctional forests......Page 393
25.3.1.1 Background......Page 394
25.3.1.2 Erosion control techniques......Page 395
25.3.1.3 Ecological effects of rehabilitation and erosion control......Page 396
25.3.2.1 Background......Page 397
25.3.2.4 Ecological restoration at Gangwon-do......Page 398
25.4 Restoration challenges in northeast Asia......Page 399
25.4.3 Forest for Peace......Page 400
References......Page 401
26.1 Introduction......Page 403
26.2 Historical background......Page 404
26.3.1 The Caspian region......Page 405
26.3.2 The Zagros region......Page 406
26.4 Restoration activities......Page 407
26.4.2 Replacement with exotic species......Page 408
26.4.3 Afforestation with exotic species......Page 409
26.4.5 Floodwater spreading and afforestation with exotic species......Page 411
References......Page 412
27.1 Introduction......Page 414
27.1.1 Ecological summary......Page 415
27.1.2 Environmental and economic importance......Page 416
27.2 Restoration practices......Page 417
27.2.1 Natural regeneration......Page 418
27.2.2 Enrichment......Page 419
27.2.3 Ecological corridors......Page 420
27.2.4.2 Random planting model......Page 421
27.2.4.6 Cuttings......Page 422
27.3 Restoration projects......Page 423
27.5 Research needs......Page 424
References......Page 425
Contents......Page 428
28.1 Introduction......Page 429
28.2 An overview of B.C. forestry......Page 430
28.3 Forest restoration priorities in B.C.......Page 432
28.3.2 Programs......Page 434
28.4.1 Ecological issue: lack of natural structural elements or species in second-growth stands......Page 435
28.4.1.1 Case study 1: fungal inoculation to create wildlife trees......Page 436
28.4.2.1 Case study 2: Scotch broom control......Page 437
28.4.4 Ecological issue: extensive uniform stands......Page 438
28.4.4.1 Case study 3: restoring structural diversity to the Kitimat Valley......Page 439
28.4.5 Ecological issue: under-represented stand types in the landscape......Page 440
28.4.6 Ecological issue: riparian habitat integrity......Page 441
28.4.6.1 Case study 4: Western Forest Products and Weyerhaeuser riparian silviculture......Page 442
28.4.7 Ecological issue: access impacts to sensitive ecosystems......Page 444
28.4.8.1 Case study 5: planning for landscape connectivity in the Morice and Lakes IFPA......Page 445
28.5 Conclusions......Page 446
References......Page 447
29.1 The region......Page 450
29.2 Forest issues......Page 451
29.3.1.1 Replacement old forests......Page 452
29.3.1.1.1 Enhancing old-forest characteristics in younger even-aged stands......Page 453
29.3.1.2 Landscape issues and old forests......Page 454
29.3.2 Enhancing stand structural diversity......Page 455
29.3.2.4 Stratified mixtures......Page 456
29.3.2.6 Options for retention......Page 457
29.3.2.7 Multiaged stands......Page 458
29.3.3.1 Exotic insects and pathogens......Page 459
29.3.3.2 Exotic plants......Page 460
29.3.4.2 Stand-level fuel treatments......Page 461
29.3.4.3 Landscape-level organization of stand structures......Page 462
References......Page 463
30.1 Introduction......Page 467
30.2 Forests of the inland northwest......Page 468
30.3 Dry forests......Page 469
30.3.1 Dry forest change......Page 470
30.4 Moist forests......Page 472
30.4.1 Moist forest change......Page 473
30.5 Restoration strategies......Page 477
30.6 Economic and social aspects......Page 480
References......Page 481
31.1 Introduction......Page 485
31.2.1 Variation in fire regimes and stand structures......Page 487
31.2.2 Historical landscape structure......Page 488
31.3 Current condition of ponderosa pine forests......Page 489
31.4 Restoration goals for ecologically sustainable landscapes......Page 491
31.5 Restoration treatment options......Page 492
31.7 Case examples......Page 494
31.7.1 Northern Arizona, U.S.A. ? including the Greater Flagstaff Forests Partnership......Page 495
31.7.2 Southwestern Colorado — the Ponderosa Pine Partnership......Page 496
31.7.3 East central Colorado ? the Upper South Platte Watershed Protection and Restoration Project......Page 497
31.7.4 Western Montana — the Lick Creek Demonstration Study......Page 498
References......Page 500
Contents......Page 505
32.2.1 Longleaf pine ecosystems......Page 506
32.2.2 Ecological significance......Page 508
32.3 History of longleaf pine ecosystems......Page 509
32.4 Social and political context......Page 510
32.6.1 Restoration framework......Page 511
32.6.3.1 Xeric and subxeric sandhills dominated by longleaf pine with native understory......Page 512
32.6.3.2 Xeric and subxeric sandhills dominated by other trees with native understory......Page 513
32.6.3.3 Xeric and subxeric sandhills without a native understory......Page 514
32.6.3.6 Upland and montane sites dominated by longleaf pine with native understory......Page 516
32.7.1 Estimating restoration costs......Page 517
Acknowledgments......Page 518
References......Page 519
Part 7: Case Studies: Reclamation......Page 524
33.1 Introduction......Page 525
33.2 Physiography......Page 526
33.4 Air pollution impacts on forests......Page 527
33.5 Forest decline......Page 529
33.6 Forest restoration......Page 532
33.8.1 Physiography......Page 534
33.8.2 Primary and secondary decline......Page 535
33.8.4 Forest restoration......Page 536
References......Page 538
34.1 Introduction......Page 543
34.2.2 Historical framework......Page 544
34.3.1 Irish peatlands......Page 545
34.3.2 Birth of peatland forestry and afforestation of blanket bogs......Page 546
34.4 Prospects for cutaway peatland forestry......Page 547
34.4.1 Reclamation of industrial cutaway peatlands......Page 548
34.4.2 Initial research into forestry on cutaway peatlands......Page 550
34.5.1 Industrial cutaway peatlands: a challenging ecosystem......Page 551
34.5.1.1 Climatic conditions......Page 552
34.5.1.2 Soil moisture regime and water table levels......Page 553
34.5.1.3 Soil nutrient regime and tree nutrition......Page 554
34.5.1.5 Species suitability......Page 555
34.6 Conclusions......Page 556
References......Page 557