Resistant starch : sources, applications and health benefits

Preface xvii    About the Editors xix     List of Contributors xxi     Acknowledgements xxv     1 Starch Biosynthesis in Relation to Resistant Starch 1  Geetika Ahuja, Sarita Jaiswal and Ravindra N. Chibbar     1.1 Introduction 1     1.1.1 Starch components 1     1.1.2 Resistant starch 2     1.2 Factors Affecting Starch Digestibility 3     1.3 Starch Biosynthesis 4     1.4 Starch Biosynthesis in Relation to RS 6     1.4.1 ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) 6     1.4.2 Starch synthases (SS) 6     1.4.3 Starch branching enzymes (SBE) 11     1.4.4 Starch debranching enzymes (DBE) 13     1.5 Concluding Remarks 13     Acknowledgements 15     References 15     2 Type 2 Resistant Starch in High-Amylose Maize Starch and its Development 23  Hongxin Jiang and Jay-lin Jane     2.1 Introduction 23     2.2 RS Formation in High-Amylose Maize Starch 28     2.3 RS Formation During Kernel Development 29     2.4 Elongated Starch Granules of High-Amylose Maize Starch 31     2.4.1 Structures of elongated starch granules 31     2.4.2 Formation of elongated starch granules 33     2.4.3 Location of RS in the starch granule 35     2.5 Roles of High-Amylose Modifier (HAM) Gene in Maize ae-Mutant 36     2.6 Conclusions 37     References 38     3 RS4-Type Resistant Starch: Chemistry, Functionality and Health Benefits 43  Clodualdo C. Maningat and Paul A. Seib     3.1 Introduction 43     3.2 Historical Account of Starch Indigestibility 44     3.3 Starch Modification Yielding Increased Resistance to Enzyme Digestibility 47     3.3.1 Cross-linked RS4 starches 50     3.3.2 Substituted RS4 starches 54     3.3.3 Pyrodextrinized RS4 Starches 56     3.4 Physicochemical Properties Affecting Functionality 57     3.5 Physiological Responses and Health Benefits 60     3.6 Performance in Food and Beverage Products 65     3.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 68     References 68     4 Novel Applications of Amylose-Lipid Complex as Resistant Starch Type 5 79  Jovin Hasjim, Yongfeng Ai and Jay-lin Jane     4.1 Introduction 79     4.2 Enzyme Digestibility of Amylose-Lipid Complex 80     4.2.1 Effects of lipid structure on the enzyme resistance of amylose-lipid complex 81     4.2.2 Effects of the crystalline structure on the enzyme resistance of amylose-lipid complex 82     4.2.3 Effects of amylose-lipid complex on the enzyme resistance of granular starch 82     4.3 Production of Resistant Granular Starch Through Starch-Lipid Complex Formation 83     4.3.1 Effects of fatty-acid structure on the RS content 83     4.3.2 Effects of debranching on the RS content 85     4.4 Applications of the RS Type 5 86     4.5 Health Benefits of RS Type 5 87     4.5.1 Glycemic and insulinemic control 87     4.5.2 Colon cancer prevention 89     4.6 Conclusion 91     References 92     5 Digestion Resistant Carbohydrates 95  Annette Evans     5.1 Introduction 95     5.2 Starch Digestion 95     5.3 Physical Structures of Starch 97     5.3.1 Starch helices 98     5.3.2 Crystalline structures 99     5.3.3 Starch granule structure 99     5.4 Resistant Starch due to Physical Structure 100     5.5 Molecular Structure of Starch 102     5.6 Enzyme Resistance due to Molecular Structure 103     5.7 Conclusion 106     References 106     6 Slowly Digestible Starch and Health Benefits 111  Genyi Zhang and Bruce R. Hamaker     6.1 Introduction 111     6.2 SDS and Potential Beneficial Health Effects 112     6.2.1 Potential health benefit of SDS relative to RDS 113     6.3 The Process of Starch Digestion 115     6.3.1 Enzyme action 115     6.4 Structural and Physiological Fundamentals of SDS 116     6.4.1 Physical or food matrix structures related to SDS 117     6.4.2 Starch chemical structures leading to SDS 118     6.4.3 Other food factors that decrease digestion rate 120     6.4.4 Physiological control of food motility 121     6.5 Application-Oriented Strategies to Make SDS 121     6.5.1 Starch-based ingredients 121     6.5.2 SDS generation in a food matrix 122     6.6 Considerations 123     References 123     7 Measurement of Resistant Starch and Incorporation of Resistant Starch into Dietary Fibre Measurements 131  Barry V. McCleary     7.1 Introduction 131     7.2 Development of AOAC Official Method 2002.02 133     7.3 Development of an Integrated Procedure for the Measurement of Total Dietary Fibre 136     References 142     8 In Vitro Enzymatic Testing Method and Digestion Mechanism of Cross-linked Wheat Starch 145  Radhiah Shukri, Paul A. Seib, Clodualdo C. Maningat, and Yong-Cheng Shi     8.1 Introduction 145     8.2 Materials and Methods 148     8.2.1 Materials 148     8.2.2 General methods 148     8.2.3 Conversion of CL wheat starch to phosphodextrins and 31PNMR spectra of the phosphodextrins 148     8.2.4 Digestibility of CL wheat starch 149     8.2.5 Thermal properties 150     8.2.6 Microscopic observation 150     8.2.7 Scanning electron microscope (SEM) 150     8.2.8 Statistical analysis 150     8.3 Results and Discussion 151     8.3.1 Effects of a-amylase/amyloglucosidase digestion on P content and chemical forms of the phosphate esters on starch 151     8.3.2 Thermal properties 152     8.3.3 Starch granular morphology before and after enzyme digestion 153     8.3.4 Digestibility 160     8.4 Conclusions 162     8.5 Acknowledgements 163     8.6 Abbreviations Used in This Chapter 163     References 163     9 Biscuit Baking and Extruded Snack Applications of Type III Resistant Starch 167  Lynn Haynes, Jeanny Zimeri and Vijay Arora     9.1 Introduction 167     9.2 Thermal Characteristics of Heat-Shear Stable Resistant Starch Type III Ingredient 168     9.3 Application to Biscuit Baking: Cookies 172     9.4 Cracker Baking 175     9.5 Extruded Cereal Application 178     9.5.1 Preparation of extruded RTE cereal and analysis 179     References 189     10 Role of Carbohydrates in the Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes 191  Thomas M.S. Wolever     10.1 Introduction 191     10.2 Background 191     10.2.1 Definition of diabetes 191     10.2.2 Types of diabetes 192     10.2.3 Complications of diabetes 192     10.2.4 Prevalence of diabetes 192     10.2.5 Risk factors for type 2 diabetes 193     10.3 Carbohydrates and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes 193     10.3.1 Markers of carbohydrate quality 193     10.4 Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes 195     10.5 Effect of Altering Source or Amount of Dietary Carbohydrate on Insulin Sensitivity, Insulin Secretion and Disposition Index 197     10.6 Mechanisms by Which Low-GI Foods Improve Beta-Cell Function 199     10.6.1 Glucose toxicity 199     10.6.2 Reduced serum free fatty acids (FFA) 200     10.6.3 Increased GLP-1 secretion 201     10.7 Conclusions 202     References 202     11 Resistant Starch on Glycemia and Satiety in Humans 207  Mark D. Haub     11.1 Introduction 207     11.2 Diet and Resistant Starch 208     11.3 Resistant Starch and Insulin Sensitivity 209     11.4 Current Theoretical Mechanism 209     11.5 Satiety 211     11.6 Fermentation and Gut Microbiota 212     11.7 Effect of RS Type 212     11.8 Summary 213     References 213     12 The Acute Effects of Resistant Starch on Appetite and Satiety 215  Caroline L. Bodinham and M. Denise Robertson     12.1 Appetite Regulation 215     12.2 Measurement of Appetite in Humans 216     12.3 Proposed Mechanisms for an Effect of Resistant Starch on Appetite 217     12.4 Rodent Data 218     12.5 Human Data 221     References 225     13 Metabolic Effects of Resistant Starch 229  Martine Champ     13.1 Fermentation of RS and Its Impact on Colonic Metabolism 230     13.2 Resistant Starch, Glycemia, Insulinaemia and Glucose Tolerance 235     13.3 RS Consumption and Lipid Metabolism 236     13.4 RS Consumption, GIP, GLP-1 and PYY Secretion 238     13.5 RS Consumption, Satiety and Satiation and Fat Deposition 239     13.6 Conclusion 242     References 244     14 The Microbiology of Resistant Starch Fermentation in the Human Large Intestine: A Host of Unanswered Questions 251  Harry J. Flint     14.1 Introduction 251     14.2 Identifying the Major Degraders of Resistant Starch in the Human GI Tract 252     14.2.1 The human colonic microbiota 252     14.2.2 Cultural studies 252     14.2.3 16S rRNA-based studies 253     14.3 Systems for Starch Utilization in Gut Bacteria 254     14.3.1 Bacteroides spp. 255     14.3.2 Bifidobacterium spp. 255     14.3.3 Lachnospiraceae - Roseburia spp., Eubacterium rectale and relatives 256     14.3.4 Ruminococcaceae 256     14.4 Metagenomics 256     14.5 Factors Influencing Competition for Starch as a Growth Substrate 257     14.6 Metabolite Cross-Feeding 258     14.7 Impact of Dietary Resistant Starch upon Colonic Bacteria and Bacterial Metabolites in Humans 259     14.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 260     Acknowledgements 262     References 262     15 Colon Health and Resistant Starch: Human Studies and Animal Models 267  Suzanne Hendrich, Diane F. Birt, Li Li and Yinsheng Zhao     15.1 RS Classification 267     15.2 RS and Colon Health: Overview 267     15.3 RS, Gut Microbes and Microbial Fermentation 268     15.3.1 RS and laxation 269     15.3.2 RS, IBS and diverticulosis 270     15.3.3 RS and IBD 270     15.3.4 RS and colon cancer risk - human studies 271     15.4 Colon Cancer Prevention - Animal Models 272     15.5 Conclusions 275     References 275     Index 279