Resilience and Vulnerability: Adaptation in the Context of Childhood Adversities

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Contributors......Page 13
Foreword......Page 21
References......Page 27
CONTENTS AND ORGANIZATION......Page 31
1 A Resilience Framework for Research, Policy, and Practice......Page 35
PROJECT COMPETENCE......Page 37
The Two Fundamental Judgments Required for Defining Resilience......Page 38
Competence in Developmental Perspective......Page 39
Threats to the Development of Competence: Risk and Adversity......Page 41
Competence in the Presence of Risk: Protective Processes......Page 43
Human Adaptational Systems as Protective Factors: Ordinary Magic......Page 46
Reformulating Intervention......Page 50
Mission......Page 51
Models......Page 52
Methods......Page 53
References......Page 55
PART I FAMILIAL ADVERSITIES......Page 61
2 Young Children with Mentally Ill Parents......Page 63
RELILIENCE MODELS: APPLICATION TO THE FIRST YEARS OF LIFE......Page 64
Attachment......Page 67
Infant Negativity......Page 69
Parenting Sensitivity......Page 71
Other Parenting Behavior......Page 72
Parent Emotion Processing......Page 73
Feelings about the Child......Page 74
SUMMARY AND INTEGRATION......Page 75
Developmental Models......Page 76
Inferences Regarding Prevention......Page 78
Early Development and Resilience Models......Page 79
References......Page 80
NEGATIVE OUTCOMES OF CHILDREN OF DEPRESSD PARENTS......Page 84
Outcomes of Children of Depressed Parents......Page 85
Studies of School-Age Children and Adolescents......Page 86
Mediators of Risk......Page 87
Genetic and Biological Risk Factors......Page 88
Quality of the Parent–Child Relationship......Page 89
Marital Factors and Children’s Risk......Page 91
Stressful Life Events and Conditions......Page 92
Protective/Risk Factors in Main Effects Analyses......Page 94
Interaction Models to Predict Resilience in High-Risk Children......Page 95
LIMITS OF RESILIENT ADAPTATION......Page 97
Defining Depression......Page 98
Children’s Outcomes......Page 99
Conceptual and Empirical Challenges......Page 100
IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS AND SOCIAL POLICIES......Page 101
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 103
References......Page 104
INTRODUCTION......Page 110
ADAPTATION IN THE FACE OF DIFFERING LEVELS OF ADVERSITY: A 2×2 MATRIX......Page 112
TRACKING VULNERABILITY AND RESILIENCE IN A PROSPECTIVE LONGITUDINAL STUDY......Page 114
Family Adversity Indicators I......Page 115
Family Adversity Index......Page 116
Temperament......Page 117
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILDREN IN THE PRESCHOOL YEARS......Page 118
Behavioral Problems......Page 119
Temperament......Page 124
RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF RESILIENCE......Page 125
CONCLUSIONS......Page 128
A Longer-Term Developmental Perspective on the Findings......Page 130
Conclusions and Implications for Prevention......Page 131
NEXT STEPS......Page 132
Note......Page 133
References......Page 134
5 Maternal Drug Abuse versus Other Psychological Disturbances......Page 138
MATERNAL DRUG ABUSE AND COEXISTING PROBLEMS: DISENTANGLING RISKS TO CHILDREN......Page 139
Relative Risks: Maternal Drug Abuse versus Affective Disturbances......Page 141
PROTECTIVE AND VULNERABILITY PROCESSES......Page 142
METHODS......Page 144
Sample: Descriptive Data......Page 145
Group Comparisons: Categorical and Continuous Indicators......Page 146
Group Comparisons: Resilient Adaptation......Page 148
Maternal Drug Abuse versus Affective/Anxiety Disorders: Variable-Based Analyses......Page 149
Vulnerability and Protective Processes......Page 150
DISCUSSION......Page 151
Maternal Psychiatric Disorders: Specificity of Effects......Page 153
Vulnerability and Protective Processes......Page 155
Limitations, Implications, and Conclusions......Page 157
References......Page 161
INTRODUCTION......Page 164
METHOD......Page 167
Conduct/Antisocial Personality Disorders......Page 168
Measures of Socioeconomic Adversity......Page 169
Measures of Child Abuse Exposure......Page 170
Child Factors......Page 171
School Factors......Page 172
The Prevalence of Childhood Adversity......Page 173
Modeling Resilience Processes......Page 176
DISCUSSION......Page 179
Gender......Page 180
Personality and Related Factors......Page 181
Cumulative Effects of Resilience Factors......Page 182
Risk and Resilience......Page 183
References......Page 185
7 Sequelae of Child Maltreatment......Page 190
Sources of Data......Page 194
Identification of Maltreated Children......Page 195
Assessment of Children’s Adjustment......Page 196
Academic Achievement......Page 197
Vulnerability and Resilience among Maltreated Children......Page 198
Prevalence of Resilience among Maltreated Children......Page 199
Sequelae of Maltreatment: Risks for Different Adjustment Domains......Page 200
Pathways to Maladjustment among Maltreated Children......Page 201
Protective Factors among Maltreated Children......Page 203
The Likelihood of Resilience as a Function of Protective Factors......Page 205
OVERVIEW AND IMPLICATIONS......Page 206
Processes Underlying Vulnerability and Resilience......Page 207
Implications for Intervention and Policy......Page 209
References......Page 211
8 Risk and Resilience in Children Coping with Their Parents’ Divorce and Remarriage......Page 216
THE ADJUSTMENT OF CHILDREN IN DIVORCED AND REMARRIED FAMILIES......Page 217
CHALLENGES AND CHANGES IN EXPERIENCES OF CHILDREN IN DIVORCED AND REMARRIED FAMILIES......Page 220
PROBLEMS PRECEDING DIVORCE......Page 221
Age......Page 223
Gender......Page 224
Temperament and Personality Characteristics......Page 225
Financial Status......Page 226
Interparental Conflict......Page 228
Parent–Child Relationships......Page 229
Noncustodial Parents......Page 232
Stepparents......Page 233
Sibling Relationships......Page 234
Grandparents......Page 235
Peer Relationships......Page 236
Schools......Page 237
Legal and Therapeutic Interventions......Page 238
SUMMARY......Page 239
References......Page 240
9 Correlational and Experimental Study of Resilience in Children of Divorce and Parentally Bereaved Children......Page 247
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS......Page 248
ADVERSITIES FOR BEREAVED CHILDREN AND CHILDREN OF DIVORCE......Page 250
Beliefs about Control......Page 251
Coping and Coping Efficacy......Page 253
Appraisal of Stressful Situations......Page 254
Expression of Emotion......Page 255
Temperament......Page 256
Parent–Child Relationships: Parental Warmth......Page 257
Parent–Child Relationships: Discipline......Page 259
Family-Level Resources......Page 260
Interventions as Experimental Studies of Resilience......Page 262
New Beginnings Program for Children of Divorce......Page 263
Family Bereavement Program......Page 266
Implications for Developmental Theory......Page 267
Notes......Page 269
References......Page 270
Part II EXOSYSTEMIC AND SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC RISKS......Page 275
INTRODUCTION......Page 277
CHILDREN IN POVERTY......Page 278
THE ORGANIZATIONAL MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT......Page 280
A CLASSICAL VIEW OF PROTECTIVE FACTORS......Page 281
THE PLACE OF DEVELOPMENTAL HISTORY IN RESILIENCE RESEARCH......Page 283
CHARACTERIZING EARLY COMPETENCE......Page 286
IMPLICATIONS FOR PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION......Page 289
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH......Page 291
References......Page 292
11 Poverty and Early Childhood Adjustment......Page 301
POVERTY AS A RISK FACTOR FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT......Page 302
CONCEPTUALIZING POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT AMONG YOUNG IMPOVERISHED CHILDREN......Page 303
FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH POSITIVE ADJUSTMENT......Page 304
Child......Page 305
Family......Page 307
Participants and Procedures......Page 309
Positive Adjustment......Page 310
Family Factors Tested for Association with Adjustment......Page 311
Stage 1......Page 312
Stage 3......Page 314
Stage 4......Page 316
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 317
References......Page 321
12 Emerging Perspectives on Context Specificity of Children’s Adaptation and Resilience......Page 327
Lessons from Developmental Psychopathology......Page 328
A Proposed Conceptual Framework for Studying Resilience in Context......Page 329
Evaluating Two Perspectives on Context-Specific Adaptation among Urban Children......Page 330
Social-Learning Model for Children’s Resilience......Page 332
Measuring Family Stress Processes......Page 333
Cohort Selection and Subgroup Designation......Page 334
Child-Centered Resources Predicting Competence in Adversity......Page 335
Realistic Control Attributions about Family Adversity......Page 336
Personal Mastery: Efficacy, Perceived Competence, and Future Expectations......Page 337
Family Resources Predicting Competence......Page 338
Social-Learning versus Attachment-Based Models of Parent Protection......Page 339
Preventive Intervention: Promoting Child Competencies......Page 340
Modifications in the RCRP Conceptual Model......Page 341
Lives in Progress: A 6-Year Follow-up of Cohort 2 Youths......Page 342
Emotion Regulation and Competence in High vs. Low Adversity Families......Page 343
Accuracy of Self-Evaluations of Competence......Page 344
Future Expectations and Adjustment: Effects of Behavior Functioning......Page 345
Peer Group Contexts and Protective Effects of Afterschool Activities......Page 346
SUMMING UP: PERSPECTIVES ON CONTEXT SPECIFICITY OF CHILDREN’S ADAPTATION......Page 347
References......Page 348
RISK, PROTECTION, AND COMPETENCE......Page 352
Holistic, Individual-in-Context Perspective......Page 354
Importance of Intensive Within-Group Samples......Page 355
The Need to Examine Positive Developmental Outcomes......Page 356
The Adolescent Pathways Project (APP)......Page 357
The Cascading Nature of Poverty into Proximal Social Contexts......Page 358
Profiles of Perceived Family Transactions......Page 360
Profiles of Perceived Peer Transactions......Page 364
Holistic Patterns of Contextual Competence: Nature and Outcomes......Page 366
Revisiting the Guiding Tenets......Page 370
FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH AND INTERVENTION......Page 372
References......Page 374
14 Overcoming the Odds?......Page 377
Adolescence......Page 378
Urban Poverty......Page 379
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS FOR POOR URBAN ADOLESCENTS......Page 380
Violence and Victimization......Page 381
Community Organizations and Youth-Serving Agencies......Page 383
Delinquent Peer Groups......Page 384
Harsh and Punitive Parenting......Page 385
Parental Support and Protection......Page 386
LIMITS OF RESILIENT ADAPTATION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTION......Page 390
References......Page 394
15 Adaptation among Youth Facing Multiple Risks......Page 398
ASSESSING RISKS......Page 399
REPRESENTATIVE RISK FACTORS......Page 400
CUMULATIVE RISK STUDIES......Page 401
Quality versus Quantity......Page 402
Multiple Outcomes and Multiple Risks......Page 403
RESILIENCE AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS......Page 407
Income and Marital Status......Page 412
Family Process......Page 413
Gender and Race......Page 415
Resourcefulness......Page 416
Mental Health......Page 417
DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES......Page 418
Nonspecificity of Risks......Page 420
Nonuniversality of Protective Factors......Page 421
References......Page 422
16 Positive Adaptation among Youth Exposed to Community Violence......Page 426
RATES OF EXPOSURE TO VIOLENCE......Page 427
Posttraumatic Stress and Internalizing Disorders......Page 428
Externalizing Disorders......Page 429
Summary of Exposure Impact......Page 430
VULNERABILITY AND PROTECTIVE MECHANISMS......Page 431
Age......Page 432
Other Stressors......Page 433
Family......Page 434
Community......Page 435
LIMITS TO RESILIENT ADAPTATION......Page 436
IMPLICATIONS FOR THEORY AND RESEARCH ON RESILIENCE......Page 437
Community-Level Intervention......Page 439
Family Interventions......Page 440
Interventions for Those Exposed......Page 441
References......Page 442
17 Perceived Discrimination and Resilience......Page 448
PUERTO RICANS AS A LATINO SUBGROUP......Page 450
PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION......Page 452
PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION AS A RISK FACTOR FOR POOR MENTAL HEALTH......Page 453
PROCESSES THAT MEDIATE THE RISK OF PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION......Page 455
Age as a Proxy for Cognitive Development......Page 456
A Shared Worldview of Differential Power for Interpreting Events......Page 457
Attributional Ambiguity......Page 458
PERCEIVING DISCRIMINATION AS PROTECTION FROM THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF RACISM......Page 459
METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES......Page 460
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: RESEARCH......Page 462
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 463
Note......Page 464
References......Page 465
INTRODUCTION......Page 470
ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE ABOUT EFFECTIVENESS AND PROTECTION......Page 471
NEW DIRECTIONS IN INTERVENTION RSEARCH......Page 472
CONTRIBUTIONS OF CONFIRMATORY PROGRAM EVALUATION......Page 473
HYPOTHESIS OF PROTECTIVE MECHANISM IN EARLY INTERVENTION......Page 475
INTERVENTION FINDINGS IN THE CHICAGO LONGITUDINAL STUDY......Page 479
Protective Effects of Participation in Intervention......Page 481
Mechanisms of Intervention Effects......Page 482
For Whom Are Intervention Services Most Effective?......Page 487
CONCLUSION......Page 488
References......Page 490
PART III COMMENTARIES......Page 495
19 Toward Building a Better Brain......Page 497
A GENERAL DEFINITION OF ENRICHMENT......Page 498
EXPERIENCE AND THE BRAIN: A BRIEF HISTORY......Page 499
THE ENRICHED ENVIRONMENT PARADIGM......Page 500
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES......Page 501
NEUROANATOMICAL CHANGES......Page 502
BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS OF ENRICHMENT......Page 503
ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS OF OBSERVED EFFECTS OF ENRICHED ENVIRONMENTS......Page 504
ENVIRONMENTAL ENRICHMENT FOR HUMANS: EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND ENRICHMENT......Page 505
RATS 1, HUMANS 0: SOME FACTORS MEDIATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HUMAN ENRICHMENT......Page 507
Intensity and Quantity of Exposure......Page 508
Timing of Exposure......Page 509
MECHANISMS OF ENRICHMENT: SO HOW DOES THE ENVIRONMENT GET INTO THE BRAIN?......Page 510
A MODEL OF HUMAN ENRICHMENT......Page 512
A Model System: Cognition......Page 514
IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 516
References......Page 518
CONCEPT OF RESILIENCE......Page 523
BIOLOGICAL PARALLELS......Page 524
G×E: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE......Page 525
rGE: DIVERSITY IN MECHANISMS......Page 528
SEX DIFFERENCES......Page 532
DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES......Page 533
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: ANALYTIC AND CONCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS IN STUDYING RESILIENCE......Page 534
FUTURE DIRECTIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS......Page 536
References......Page 537
21 Research on Resilience......Page 544
Risk Research versus Resilience Research......Page 545
Defining Resilience: Approaches to Measuring Risk and Positive Adaptation......Page 548
Protective and Vulnerability Factors......Page 551
Future Directions: Considerations in Studying Protective and Vulnerability Factors......Page 557
Summary: Conceptualizing and Designing Studies of Resilience......Page 559
Salient Risk Modifiers: Influences Involving the Family, the Community, and the Child......Page 561
Prioritizing Domains: Implications for Interventions......Page 567
Limits to Resilient Adaptation: Covert Distress Underlying Manifest Competence......Page 573
Future Directions: Applied Research......Page 576
Summary: Guidelines for Future Interventions......Page 577
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS......Page 578
Notes......Page 579
References......Page 580
Index......Page 585