Research Methods in Social Relations

Cover
Title page
Copyright page
Contents
Preface to the Eighth Edition
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Part I: Underpinnings of Social Relations Research
	Chapter 1: Ways of Thinking and Knowing
		Recognizing Importance of Research Methods and Relevance of Research
		Perspective
		The Place of Values in Social Science Research
		Contestability in Social and Physical Sciences
		Casual Observation
		Naïve Hypotheses and Theories of Social Behavior
		Sources of Support for Naïve Hypotheses Underlying Casual Observation
			Logical Analysis
			Authority
			Consensus
			Observation
			Past Experience
		Toward a Science of Social Behavior
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 2: Doing Social Science Research
		The Nature of Social Science Theories and Hypotheses
		What Makes a Theory Productive?
		The Functions of Research in Constructing Theories
			Discovery
			Demonstration
			Refutation
			Replication
		Criteria for Evaluating Social Science Research
			Construct Validity
			Internal Validity
			External Validity
			Conclusion Validity
		Maximizing Construct Validity
		Maximizing Internal Validity
		Maximizing External Validity
		Basic and Applied Research
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 3: Ethical Principles
		The Tuskegee Syphilis Study
			Why Did Ethical Concerns Arise?
		The Belmont Report
			Respect for Persons
			Beneficence
			Justice
		Focus on Ethical Issues in Experimental Research: Deception
			Using Deception in an Ethical Manner
		Focus on Ethical Issues in Quasi-Experimental Research: Confidentiality and Anonymity
		Focus on Ethical Issues in Non-Experimental Research: Participant Observation
		Is Not Doing a Study Ethical?
		The Ethical Review Process
		Closing Thoughts
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 4: Roles and Relations among Researchers, Practitioners, and Participants in Engaged Research
		Roles of Researchers in Work with Practitioners, Policy Makers, and Participants in Social Research
			Action Research Approaches
			Participatory Action Research
			Community-Based Participatory Research
		Importance of Work that Engages Practitioners and Is Relevant to Policy
			Historical Roots of Engaged Research
			Importance of Collaborative Engaged Research
			Prior Social Relations Research Affecting Policy and Practice
		Applied versus Translational Research
		Practical Suggestions for Developing Relations with Policy Makers, Practitioners, and Communities
			Developing Relationships
			Being Aware of and Acknowledging Other Ongoing Research and Partnership Efforts
			Organizing Meetings
			Building Commitment to the Work
			Dynamics of Power in Relationships with Communities
			Communication
			Establishing Timelines for Work and a Work Plan
			Finding Support for the Research
		Summary
		Illustrative Examples
			1. Schoolyard Gardens
			2. After-School Programs
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 5: Research in Laboratory Settings
		When Should the Laboratory Be Used?
			Universalistic versus Particularistic Research Goals
			Basic versus Applied Research
			Examining What Does Happen versus What Would Happen
			Manipulable versus Nonmanipulable Independent Variables
			Short versus Long Time Frames
			Participants’ Awareness of the Research
			Summary
		Types of Laboratory Study
			Impact Studies
			Judgment Studies
			Observational Studies
			Summary
		Artifact and Artificiality
			The Laboratory and Types of Validity
		“Artificiality” of the Laboratory
			Overcoming Threats to Validity of Laboratory Research
		Elements of a Laboratory Study
			Setting
			Independent Variable
			Manipulation Checks
			Dependent Variable
			Debriefing
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 6: Research in Field and Community-Based Settings
		Levels of Analysis
		Randomization: Pro and Con
		Illustrations of Non-Laboratory Research
			Experimental Research: The Jigsaw Classroom
			Non-Experimental Research: Engaging and Persisting in Volunteerism
			Non-Experimental Research: Impacts of Post-Secondary Education on Inmate Recidivism Rates, an Action Research Study
		Can We Afford Not to Do Applied Research?
			Illustration: Living Downwind of Nuclear Reactors
		Conducting Research in Community Settings
		Cultural Issues
		Control of Extraneous Factors, Statistical and Otherwise
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
Part II: Research Approaches in Social Relations Research
	Chapter 7: Measurement and Reliability
		From Abstract Concepts to Concrete Representations
			Constructs
			Variables
			Operational Definitions
		Operational Definitions Are Necessary but Rarely Sufficient
			Definitional Operationism
		Measurement Presupposes a Clearly Defined Construct
		Developing Questionnaire Items
			Questions Aimed at Facts
			Questions Aimed at Beliefs or Attitudes
			Questions Aimed at Friendship Patterns and Attitudes toward Specific Others
			Questions Aimed at Behavior
			Question Content: General Issues
		Question Structure
			Expressing All Alternatives
			Avoiding Unwarranted Assumptions
			Open-Ended versus Closed-Ended Questions
			Response Options for Closed-Ended Questions
			Filters and the Assessment of No Opinion
		Question Sequence
			Sequence within a Topic Area
		Item Wording for Sensitive Questions
		Creating Multiple-Item Scales
			Issues Concerning Item Construction in Multiple-Item Scales
		Levels of Measurement
			Nominal
			Ordinal
			Interval
			Ratio
		Types of Multiple-Item Scales
			Differential Scales
			Cumulative Scales
			Summated Scales
			Semantic Differential Scales
		Reliability and Sources of Unreliability
			Test–Retest Reliability
			Internal Consistency Reliability
			Inter-Rater Reliability
			Factors that Affect Reliability
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 8: Evaluating the Construct Validity of Measures
		Using Multiple Methods of Measurement
		Indirect Methods of Measurement
			Collateral Reports
			Observation
			Physiological Measures
			Other Indirect Methods
			Summary
		Evaluating Construct Validity
			Face Validity
			Content Validity
			Criterion Validity
			Convergent Validity
			Discriminant Validity
		Validity and the Nomological Net
		The Multitrait–Multimethod Matrix
		Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses
		Cultural Issues in Measurement
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 9: Sampling Methods
		Some Basic Definitions and Concepts
		Nonprobability Sampling
			Haphazard Samples
			Quota Samples
			Purposive Samples
			Snowball Samples
			Concluding Thoughts about Nonprobability Sampling
		Probability Sampling
			Simple Random Samples
			Selecting a Random Sample
			Obtaining and Using Random Numbers
			Principles Underlying the Use of Probability Sampling
			Common Errors in Random Sampling
			Stratified Random Sampling
			Cluster Sampling
			Sampling Error
			Random Digit Dial (RDD) Telephone Sampling
		Sampling Elements Other Than People
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 10: Randomized Experiments
		Controlling and Manipulating Variables
		Random Assignment
		Independent Variables that Vary Within and Between Participants
		Threats to Internal Validity
			Selection
			Maturation
			History
			Instrumentation
			Mortality
			Selection by Maturation
		Illustrating Threats to Internal Validity with a Research Example
			Selection
			Selection by Maturation
			Maturation
			History
			Instrumentation
			Mortality
		Construct Validity of Independent Variables in a Randomized Experiment
		Alternative Experimental Designs
			Design 1: Randomized Two-Group Design
			Design 2: Pretest–Posttest Two-Group Design
			Design 3: Solomon Four-Group Design
			Design 4: Between-Participants Factorial Design
		Repeated Measures Designs
		Analyzing Data from Experimental Designs
		Strengths and Weaknesses of Randomized Experiments
			Experimental Artifacts
			External Validity
			The Problem of College Sophomores in the Laboratory
			The Failure of Experiments to Provide Useful Descriptive Data
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 11: Quasi-Experimental and Other Nonrandomized Designs
		Examples of Nonrandomized Designs
			Survey Study
			Quasi-Experimental Intervention Study
		Conditions for Causality
		Illustrative Nonrandomized Designs
			Static-Group Comparison Design
			Pretest–Posttest Nonequivalent Control Group Design
			One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design
			Interrupted Time-Series Design
			Replicated Interrupted Time-Series Design
		Single Case/Single Subject Designs
		Regression Effects: Challenges of Matching in Quasi-Experimentation
		Regression Discontinuity Analysis
		Propensity Score Matching
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 12: Non-Experimental Research
		Types of Non-Experimental Research
		Causal Thinking and Correlational Data
		Analyzing Non-Experimental Quantitative Data
		Longitudinal Panel Designs
		Naturalness in Research
			Benefits and Costs of Naturalness
			When Might We Not Need Natural Settings?
		Observational Research
			Unobtrusive Measures Involving Physical Traces
			Systematic Observation
			Relatively Unstructured Methods: Ethological Approaches
			Structured Methods: Checklists or Coding Schemes
			Steps in Conducting an Observation
		Archival Research
			Statistical Records
			Characteristics of Archival Research
			Research Survey Archives
			Verbal Records
		Issues in Archival Research
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 13: Qualitative Research
		Narrative Analysis
			Research Example of Narrative Analysis
			Analyzing and Reporting Narrative Data
		Focus Groups
			How Focus Groups Are Structured and Conducted
			Case Study of the Strategic Use of Focus Groups
			What Focus Groups Can and Cannot Do
		Oral History
		Participant Observation
			Field Notes
			Analyzing Field Notes
			Generalization
			Ethical Concerns
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 14: Survey Research
		Major Components of Survey Research and Sources of Error
		Major Survey Research Designs
		Modes of Data Collection
			Questionnaires
			Face-to-Face Interviews
			Telephone Interviews
		Asking Sensitive Questions
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 15: Evaluation Research
		Background
			Defining Program Evaluation
			Program Evaluation and Accountability
			Steps in an Evaluation
		Summative and Formative Evaluations
		Detailed Description of Stages in Conducting a Program Evaluation
			Developing a Conceptual Model
			Developing Evaluation Questions
			Developing an Evaluation Design
			Collecting Data
			Analyzing Data
			Providing Information to Interested Audiences
		A Quasi-Experimental Program Evaluation: Compensatory Education
		The Politics of Applied and Evaluation Research
			Results with Immediate Impact
			Vested Interests and Competing Criteria
			Technical Decisions with Ideological Consequences
			Clients’ and Other Stakeholders’ Participation in Evaluations
		Summary
		Key Terms
		On the Web
		Further Reading
		APPENDIX: Criteria for Effective Evaluations
	Chapter 16: Mixed Methods Approaches: Learning from Complementary Methods
		Overview
			When to Use Mixed Methods
			Triangulation
		Brief Background of Mixed Methods Approaches
		Types of Mixed Methods Approaches
		Framing Perspectives for Mixed Methods
		Decisions in Selecting the Type of Mixed Methods Design
		Major Types of Mixed Methods Designs
			Convergent Parallel Design
			Explanatory Sequential Design
			Exploratory Sequential Design
			Embedded Design
			Transformative Design
			Multiphase Design
		Wrapping Up
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
Part III: Analysis and Writing
	Chapter 17: Critically Reviewing Research Reports and Literatures
		Reviewing Individual Research Studies
			Step One: Read the Abstract
			Step Two: Read the Introduction
			Step Three: Read the Method Section with a Fine-Tooth Comb
			Step Four: Evaluate the Results
			Step Five: Take the Discussion Section with More than a Grain of Salt
		Reviewing Bodies of Research on a Single Topic
			Searching the Literature
			Other Ways of Locating Articles
		Reviewing the Literature: “Traditionally” and Meta-Analytically
			Understanding the Concept of Effect Size: The Foundation of Meta-Analysis
			Coding Studies for a Meta-Analysis
			Coding Other Features of Studies
		Basic Meta-Analytic Tests: Combining and Comparing Studies
		Writing and Reading Meta-Analyses
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
	Chapter 18: Writing the Research Report
		Preface
		Some Preliminary Considerations
			Which Report Should You Write?
			The “Hourglass” Shape of the Report
		Introduction
			What Is the Problem Being Investigated?
			The Literature Review
			Your Study
		Method
			What to Include
		Ethical Issues
		Results
			Setting the Stage
			Presenting the Findings
		Discussion
		Summary or Abstract
		References
		Appendix
		Some Suggestions on Procedure and Style
			Accuracy and Clarity
			Work from an Outline
			Write Simply. Use Examples. Use Friends as Reviewers
			Omit Needless Words
			Avoid Metacomments on the Writing
			Use Repetition and Parallel Construction
			Be Compulsive. Be Willing to Restructure
			Person and Voice
			Tense
			Avoid Language Bias
		Summary
		Key Concepts
		On the Web
		Further Reading
References
Index