Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Summary contents......Page 6
Detailed chapter contents......Page 8
List of figures......Page 24
List of tables......Page 27
List of case studies......Page 30
Text website contents......Page 31
Preface......Page 32
Acknowledgements......Page 34
I Preparation......Page 36
 1 Introduction to research: what, why and who?......Page 38
  1. Introduction......Page 39
   2.1 Research defined......Page 40
   2.4 Descriptive, explanatory and evaluative research......Page 41
   3.1 In general......Page 44
   3.2 Research in policy-making, planning and management processes......Page 45
  4. Who does research?......Page 50
   4.1 Academics......Page 51
   4.3 Government, commercial and non-profit organisations......Page 52
   4.4 Managers......Page 53
  5. Who pays?......Page 54
   6.1 Academic journal articles......Page 55
   6.3 Conference papers/presentations......Page 57
   6.5 Policy/planning/management reports......Page 58
  7. Terminology......Page 60
  Summary......Page 61
  Exercises......Page 62
  Resources......Page 63
  References......Page 64
  1. Introduction......Page 68
  2. Disciplinary traditions......Page 69
  3. Approaches, dimensions, issues, terminology......Page 71
   3.1 Ontology, epistemology, methodology......Page 73
   3.2 Positivist, post-positivist, interpretive and critical approaches/paradigms......Page 74
   3.3 Descriptive, explanatory, evaluative......Page 76
   3.4 Quantitative and qualitative research......Page 77
   3.7 Theoretical and applied research......Page 79
   3.8 Reflexivity......Page 80
   3.9 Experimental and naturalistic methods......Page 81
   3.10 Empirical and non-empirical research......Page 82
   3.11 Induction and deduction......Page 83
   3.12 Objectivity and subjectivity......Page 86
   3.14 Self-reported and observed data......Page 87
  4. Validity, reliability and trustworthiness......Page 88
  Summary......Page 89
  Exercises......Page 90
  Resources......Page 91
  References......Page 92
 3 Starting out – research plans and proposals......Page 98
  Introduction: elements of the research process......Page 99
   1.1 Sources of topics......Page 100
   1.3 Purpose of research......Page 105
   2.1 Introduction: purposes......Page 108
   2.3 What discipline?......Page 109
   3.1 The idea......Page 110
   3.2 Explore/explain relationships......Page 112
   3.3 Identify/list concepts......Page 113
   3.5 Operationalise concepts......Page 114
   4.1 Research question, problem or hypothesis?......Page 117
   4.4 Area of interest......Page 119
  5. List information requirements......Page 120
   6.2 Information gathering techniques to be used......Page 121
   6.3 Approach to data analysis......Page 122
   6.5 Timetable......Page 123
  8. Conduct the research......Page 124
  10. Store data......Page 125
  11. The research process in the real world......Page 126
   12.1 Introduction......Page 127
   12.2 Self-generated research proposals......Page 128
   12.3 Responsive proposals – briefs and tenders......Page 129
  Summary......Page 132
  Exercises......Page 133
  Resources......Page 134
  References......Page 135
  Appendix 3.1: Examples of conceptual frameworks......Page 140
  1. Introduction......Page 144
  2. Institutional oversight of research ethics......Page 145
  3. Ethics in the research process......Page 146
   4.1 Social benefit......Page 149
   4.3 Subjects’ freedom of choice......Page 150
   4.4 Subjects’ informed consent......Page 152
   4.5 Risk of harm to subjects......Page 155
   4.6 Honesty/rigour in analysis, interpretation and reporting......Page 159
  5. Access to research information......Page 161
  Exercises......Page 162
  References......Page 163
 5 The range of research methods......Page 166
  2. Major research methods......Page 167
   2.3 Existing sources – the literature......Page 168
   2.5 Observation......Page 169
   2.6 Qualitative methods......Page 170
   2.7 Questionnaire-based surveys......Page 171
  3. Subsidiary/cross-cutting techniques......Page 173
   3.1 Action research......Page 176
   3.3 Conjoint analysis......Page 177
   3.5 Coupon surveys/conversion studies......Page 178
   3.9 En route/intercept/cordon surveys......Page 179
   3.10 Experience sampling method (ESM)......Page 180
   3.12 Longitudinal studies......Page 181
   3.14 Media reader/viewer/listener surveys......Page 182
   3.18 Network analysis......Page 183
   3.19 Panel studies......Page 184
   3.22 Projective techniques......Page 185
   3.23 Psychographic/lifestyle research......Page 186
   3.26 Repertory grid/laddering......Page 187
   3.27 Scales......Page 188
   3.29 Time-use surveys......Page 190
  4. Multiple methods......Page 191
   4.1 Triangulation/mixed methods......Page 192
   4.2 Counting heads......Page 193
   4.3 Community study as method......Page 194
  5. Policy/management-related methods......Page 195
  6. Choosing methods......Page 196
   6.3 Data availability/access......Page 197
   6.8 Uses/users of the findings......Page 198
  Test questions......Page 199
  Resources......Page 200
  References......Page 204
 6 Reviewing the literature......Page 216
  1. Introduction – an essential task......Page 217
  3. Searching: sources of information......Page 218
   3.1 Library catalogues......Page 219
   3.3 Searching the internet......Page 220
   3.6 General leisure and tourism publications......Page 221
   3.8 Beyond leisure and tourism......Page 222
  4. Obtaining access to material......Page 223
   5. Compiling and maintaining a bibliography......Page 224
   6.1 Types of literature review......Page 227
   6.2 Reading critically and creatively......Page 232
   6.3 Summarising......Page 234
   7.2 Recording references......Page 235
   8.1 The author/date or Harvard system......Page 237
   8.2 Footnote or endnote system......Page 239
   8.3 Comparing two systems......Page 241
   9.1 Second-hand references......Page 242
   9.3 Latin abbreviations......Page 243
  Test questions......Page 244
  Resources......Page 245
  References......Page 247
II Data collection......Page 252
 7 Secondary data sources......Page 254
   1.1 Measuring leisure and tourism activity......Page 255
   1.2 Counting heads......Page 257
  2. Introduction to secondary sources......Page 260
   2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of using secondary data......Page 261
   3.1 Tourist arrivals and departures......Page 262
   3.3 Management data......Page 263
   4.1 The national leisure survey phenomenon......Page 264
   4.3 Sample size......Page 268
   4.4 Key questions/specifications......Page 269
   4.5 National time-use surveys......Page 271
   5.1 International and domestic tourism surveys......Page 272
   5.3 Definitions......Page 273
   6.2 Satellite accounts......Page 275
   7.2 Uses of census data......Page 276
  9. Opportunism......Page 278
  Exercises......Page 279
  Resources......Page 280
  References......Page 282
 8 Observation......Page 286
  1. Introduction......Page 287
   2.2 Children’s play......Page 288
   2.4 Informal spaces: spatial/functional patterns of use......Page 289
   2.5 Visitor profiles......Page 290
   2.8 Complementary research......Page 292
   2.10 Social behaviour......Page 293
   3.1 Choice of site(s)......Page 294
   3.4 Continuous observation or sampling?......Page 295
   3.5 Count frequency......Page 296
   3.6 What to observe......Page 297
   3.8 Recording information......Page 298
   3.9 Conducting the observation......Page 299
   3.10 Analysing data......Page 300
   4.1 Automatic counters......Page 303
   4.2 GPS......Page 304
   4.6 Time-lapse photography......Page 305
  Summary......Page 306
  Exercises......Page 307
  Resources......Page 308
  References......Page 309
 9 Qualitative methods: introduction and data collection......Page 312
   1.1 The nature of qualitative methods......Page 313
   1.2 History and development......Page 314
  2. Merits, functions, limitations......Page 317
   3.1 Sequential vs recursive......Page 319
   3.2 Grounded theory......Page 320
  4. The range of qualitative methods – introduction......Page 321
   5.1 Nature......Page 322
   5.3 Checklist......Page 323
   5.4 The interviewing process......Page 325
   6.2 Purposes......Page 327
   7.2 Purposes......Page 328
   8.1 Nature......Page 329
   8.4 Film......Page 330
   9.2 Biography/autobiography......Page 331
  10. Ethnography......Page 332
  11. Validity and reliability, trustworthiness......Page 333
  Test questions......Page 334
  Resources......Page 335
  References......Page 336
 10 Questionnaire surveys: typology, design and coding......Page 344
  1. Introduction......Page 345
   1.2 Roles......Page 346
   1.3 Merits......Page 347
   1.4 Limitations......Page 348
   1.5 Interviewer-completion or respondent-completion?......Page 350
   2.1 Nature......Page 351
   2.2 Conduct......Page 352
   2.3 Omnibus surveys......Page 353
   2.5 National surveys......Page 354
   3.2 Conduct......Page 355
   4.1 Nature......Page 356
   4.2 Conduct......Page 357
   4.4 National surveys......Page 358
   5.2 The problem of low response rates......Page 359
   6.1 Nature and conduct......Page 363
   6.2 Advantages and disadvantages......Page 364
   7.2 Conduct......Page 365
   7.3 Uses of user surveys......Page 366
   8.2 Conduct......Page 369
   9.1 Introduction – research problems and information requirements......Page 370
   9.2 Example questionnaires......Page 371
   9.3 General design issues......Page 375
   9.5 Activities/events/places questions......Page 378
   9.7 Attitude/opinion questions......Page 383
   9.8 Market segments......Page 385
   9.9 Ordering of questions and layout of questionnaires......Page 386
   10.1 Pre-coded questions and open-ended questions......Page 388
   10.2 Open-ended questions......Page 389
   10.3 Recording coded data......Page 390
   11.1 Threats to validity......Page 393
   11.2 Checking validity......Page 394
   12.1 Planning fieldwork arrangements......Page 396
   12.2 Conducting a pilot survey......Page 399
  Test questions......Page 400
  Resources......Page 401
  References......Page 402
 11 Experimental research......Page 406
   2.1 Components......Page 407
   2.2 The classic experimental design......Page 408
   3.1 Threats to validity......Page 409
   4.1 Types of quasi-experimental design......Page 410
   4.2 Experiments and projects......Page 411
   5. Experimental methods in leisure and tourism research......Page 412
   5.1 Discrete choice experiments (DCEs)......Page 413
   5.2 Policy/management experimental projects......Page 415
   5.3 Experimenting with research methods......Page 418
   5.4 Psychological/perceptual studies......Page 420
   5.5 Sport-related experiments......Page 421
   5.6 Children’s play......Page 422
   5.7 Other examples......Page 424
  Exercises......Page 426
  References......Page 427
 12 Case study method......Page 432
   2.2 What the case study method is not......Page 433
   2.3 Scale......Page 434
  3. Validity and reliability......Page 435
  5. Design and conduct of case studies......Page 437
   5.3 Data gathering......Page 438
  6. Analysis......Page 439
   7.1 Case study 12.1: English Life and Leisure......Page 440
   7.2 Case study 12.2: Euro Disneyland......Page 441
   7.3 Case study 12.3: Nike, advertising and women......Page 442
   7.4 Case study 12.4: Leisure, Lifestyle and the New Middle Class......Page 443
  Exercises......Page 444
  References......Page 445
 13 Sampling: quantitative and qualitative......Page 448
  2. Samples and populations......Page 449
   3.2 Sampling for household surveys......Page 450
   3.3 Sampling for telephone surveys......Page 451
   3.4 Sampling for site/user/visitor surveys......Page 452
   3.5 Sampling for street surveys and quota sampling......Page 453
   3.8 Sampling for complex events and destination studies......Page 454
  4. Sample size......Page 455
   4.1 Level of precision – confidence intervals......Page 456
   4.2 Detail of proposed analysis......Page 459
   4.4 Reporting sample size issues......Page 460
   4.6 Sample size and small populations......Page 461
  5. Weighting......Page 463
  6. Sampling for qualitative research......Page 464
  Summary......Page 465
  Exercises......Page 466
  References......Page 467
  Appendix 13.1: Suggested appendix on sample size and confidence intervals......Page 468
III Data analysis......Page 470
  1. Introduction......Page 472
   2.1 Income inequality and leisure participation......Page 473
   2.2 Estimating demand for a leisure facility......Page 476
   2.3 Tourism trend analysis......Page 480
   2.4 Facility utilisation......Page 482
   2.5 Facility catchment area......Page 484
   2.6 Meta-analysis......Page 485
  Exercises......Page 486
  References......Page 487
 15 Analysing qualitative  data......Page 490
   1.1 Data collection and analysis......Page 491
   1.3 Case study example......Page 492
   2.3 Emergent themes......Page 496
   2.5 Analysis......Page 498
   3.2 Interview transcripts......Page 500
   4.1 Introduction......Page 501
   4.2 Creating a project......Page 502
   4.4 Classifications, attributes and values......Page 503
   4.6 Importing documents......Page 504
   4.8 Setting up a coding system......Page 505
   4.10 Coding text......Page 507
   4.12 Analysis: coding query......Page 510
  Summary......Page 512
  Exercises......Page 513
  Resources......Page 514
  References......Page 515
 16 Analysing quantitative data......Page 516
  2. Quantitative data analysis and types of research......Page 517
   2.2 Explanatory research......Page 518
   2.5 Reliability......Page 519
  4. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)......Page 520
   5.2 Specifying variables......Page 524
   5.3 Starting up......Page 529
   5.6 Entering data – Data View window......Page 531
   6.1 Starting an analysis session......Page 532
   6.2 Descriptives......Page 533
   6.3 Frequencies......Page 535
   6.5 Multiple response......Page 536
   6.6 Recode......Page 538
   6.7 Mean, median and mode – measures of central tendency......Page 540
   6.8 Presenting the results – statistical summary......Page 542
   6.9 Crosstabulation......Page 543
   6.11 Graphics......Page 545
  Summary......Page 550
  Resources......Page 551
  References......Page 552
 17 Statistical analysis......Page 554
  2. The statistics approach......Page 555
   2.2 The normal distribution......Page 556
   2.3 Probabilistic statement formats......Page 558
   2.5 The null hypothesis......Page 559
   2.6 Dependent and independent variables......Page 560
  3. Data types and appropriate statistical tests......Page 561
   4.1 Introduction......Page 562
   4.4 The value of Chi-square......Page 563
   4.6 Reporting......Page 566
   5.1 Introduction......Page 567
   5.2 Paired samples test......Page 568
   5.3 Independent samples test......Page 570
   6.1 Introduction......Page 571
   6.2 Variance......Page 572
   6.3 ANOVA: analysis of variance......Page 573
   7.1 Introduction......Page 574
   7.2 Procedure......Page 575
   8.1 Introduction......Page 576
   8.2 Significance of r: null hypothesis......Page 578
   8.3 Procedure......Page 579
   9.2 Regression model......Page 580
   9.3 Procedure......Page 581
   9.4 Non-linear regression......Page 584
   10.2 Procedure......Page 585
   10.3 Binary logistic regression analysis and odds ratios......Page 587
   11.2 Factor analysis......Page 588
   11.3 Cluster analysis......Page 589
   11.4 Multiple correspondence analysis......Page 590
  12. In conclusion......Page 591
  Summary......Page 592
  Resources......Page 593
  References......Page 594
  Appendix 17.1: Details of example data used – variable deatails and data......Page 595
  Appendix 17.2: Statistical formulae......Page 596
IV Communicating results......Page 598
  1. Introduction......Page 600
   2.2 Getting started......Page 601
   2.3 Report components......Page 603
   2.4 Main body of the report – technical aspects......Page 606
   2.5 Main body of the report – structure......Page 611
   2.6 Between methods and results......Page 613
   2.8 Report functions: record and narrative......Page 614
   2.9 Research reports: conclusions......Page 616
   3.1 Oral presentations......Page 617
   3.2 Use of PowerPoint-type software......Page 618
  Summary......Page 619
  References......Page 620
 B......Page 622
 C......Page 623
 E......Page 625
 F......Page 626
 H......Page 627
 I......Page 628
 L......Page 629
 M......Page 630
 O......Page 632
 P......Page 633
 Q......Page 634
 R......Page 635
 S......Page 636
 T......Page 639
 W......Page 640
 Z......Page 641