Research Methods, Design, and Analysis

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 18
Chapter 1 Understanding Scientific Research......Page 22
 Introduction......Page 23
  Intuition......Page 24
  Rationalism......Page 25
  Empiricism......Page 26
  Induction and Deduction......Page 27
  Hypothesis Testing......Page 28
  Naturalism......Page 29
   Feyerabend’s Anarchistic Theory......Page 30
  What Exactly Is Science?......Page 31
  Reality in Nature......Page 32
  Control......Page 33
  Operationalism......Page 34
  Replication......Page 35
 The Role of Theory in Scientific Research......Page 36
  Curiosity......Page 37
  Change......Page 38
  Explanation......Page 39
  Control or Influence......Page 40
 Summary......Page 41
 Practice Test......Page 43
 Challenge Exercises......Page 44
Chapter 2 Research Approaches and Data Collection Methods......Page 46
 Introduction......Page 47
 Variables in Quantitative Research......Page 48
 Experimental Research......Page 50
  Effect......Page 51
  Required Conditions for Making the Claim of Causation......Page 52
  2. Of Phenomena That Are Made......Page 53
 Example of an Experiment and Its Logic......Page 54
  1. Causal Inference......Page 56
  1. Does Not Test Effects of Nonmanipulated Variables......Page 57
  Field Experiments......Page 58
  Internet Experiments......Page 60
 Nonexperimental Quantitative Research......Page 61
  Correlational Study......Page 62
  Natural Manipulation Research......Page 65
  Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Studies......Page 67
 Qualitative Research......Page 69
  Tests......Page 71
  Questionnaires......Page 72
  Interviews......Page 73
  Focus Groups......Page 74
  Observation......Page 75
  Existing or Secondary Data......Page 76
 Summary......Page 79
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 80
 Practice Test......Page 81
 Challenge Exercises......Page 82
 Introduction......Page 84
  Everyday Life......Page 85
  Theory......Page 86
 Ideas Not Capable of Scientific Investigation......Page 88
 Review of the Literature......Page 89
   Books......Page 90
   Computerized or Electronic Databases......Page 91
   Internet Resources......Page 94
  Additional Information Sources......Page 99
 Feasibility of the Study......Page 100
  Defining the Research Problem......Page 101
  Specificity of the Research Question......Page 102
 Formulating Hypotheses......Page 103
 Summary......Page 105
 Practice Test......Page 106
 Challenge Exercises......Page 107
Chapter 4 Ethics in Scientific Research......Page 109
  Relationship Between Society and Science......Page 110
  Professional Issues......Page 111
 Ethical Dilemmas......Page 114
 Ethical Guidelines......Page 119
  Beneficence and Nonmaleficence......Page 121
  Integrity......Page 123
  Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity......Page 124
  Institutional Approval......Page 125
   Dispensing With Informed Consent......Page 126
   Passive Versus Active Consent......Page 128
  Deception......Page 130
  Debriefing......Page 132
  Coercion and Freedom to Decline Participation......Page 134
  Confidentiality, Anonymity, and the Concept of Privacy......Page 135
  Informed Consent and Internet Research......Page 137
  Privacy and Internet Research......Page 138
 Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report......Page 139
  Writing the Research Report......Page 140
 Safeguards in the Use of Animals......Page 141
  I. Justification of the Research......Page 142
  IV. Acquisition of Animals......Page 143
  V. Experimental Procedures......Page 144
 Summary......Page 145
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 147
 Practice Test......Page 148
 Challenge Exercises......Page 149
Chapter 5 Measurement Techniques and Sampling Methods......Page 152
 Scales of Measurement......Page 153
  Interval Scale......Page 154
  Overview of Reliability and Validity......Page 155
   Internal Consistency Reliability......Page 156
  Validity......Page 157
   Validity Evidence Based on Internal......Page 159
   Validity Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables......Page 160
 Using Reliability and Validity Information......Page 161
 Terminology Used in Sampling......Page 162
 Random Sampling Techniques......Page 165
  Simple Random Sampling......Page 166
  Stratified Random Sampling......Page 167
  Systematic Sampling......Page 170
 Nonrandom Sampling Techniques......Page 171
 Random Selection and Random Assignment......Page 172
 Determining the Sample Size When Random Sampling Is Used......Page 173
 Sampling in Qualitative Research......Page 174
 Summary......Page 175
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 176
 Practice Test......Page 177
 Challenge Exercises......Page 178
Chapter 6 Ensuring Research Validity......Page 179
 Overview of Four Major Types of Validity......Page 180
 Construct Validity......Page 181
   Participant Reactivity to the Experimental Situation......Page 182
   Experimenter Effects......Page 185
 Internal Validity......Page 187
  Threats to Internal Validity......Page 188
   History......Page 189
   Maturation......Page 191
   Testing......Page 192
   Regression Artifact......Page 193
    Attrition......Page 194
   Additive and Interactive Effects......Page 195
 External Validity......Page 196
  Population Validity......Page 197
  Temporal Validity......Page 199
  Outcome Validity......Page 200
 Relationship between Internal and External Validity......Page 201
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 202
 Practice Test......Page 203
 Challenge Exercises......Page 204
Chapter 7 Control Techniques in Experimental Research......Page 208
 Introduction......Page 209
 Control Techniques Carried Out at the Beginning......Page 210
  Matching by Building the Extraneous......Page 216
  Matching by Yoked Control......Page 218
  Matching by Equating Participants......Page 219
 Counterbalancing......Page 221
  Randomized Counterbalancing......Page 223
  Intrasubject Counterbalancing......Page 224
  Complete Counterbalancing......Page 225
  Incomplete Counterbalancing......Page 226
  Double-Blind Placebo Method......Page 228
  Control of Participant Interpretation......Page 229
  Control of Experimenter Attribute Errors......Page 231
   The Blind Technique......Page 233
 Likelihood of Achieving Control......Page 234
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 235
 Practice Test......Page 236
 Challenge Exercises......Page 237
Chapter 8 Creating the Appropriate Research Design......Page 238
 Weak Experimental Research Designs......Page 239
  One-Group Posttest-Only Design......Page 240
  One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design......Page 241
  Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups......Page 242
 Strong Experimental Research Designs......Page 243
  Posttest-Only Control-Group Design......Page 246
  Strengths and Weaknesses of the Posttest-Only Control-Group Design......Page 248
 Within-Participants Designs......Page 249
  Strengths and Weaknesses of Within-Participants Designs......Page 250
 Mixed Designs (i.e., Combination of Between and Within)......Page 251
  Pretest–Posttest Control-Group Design......Page 252
  Advantages and Disadvantages of Including a Pretest......Page 253
 Factorial Designs......Page 255
 Factorial Designs Based on within-subjects independent variables......Page 261
 Factorial Designs Based on a Mixed Model......Page 262
 Strengths and Weaknesses of Factorial Designs......Page 263
 How To Choose or Construct the Appropriate Experimental Design......Page 264
 Summary......Page 265
 Practice Test......Page 267
 Challenge Exercises......Page 268
Chapter 9 Procedure for Conducting an Experiment......Page 270
 Institutional Approval......Page 271
 Research Participants......Page 272
  Obtaining Human Participants......Page 273
 Sample Size......Page 275
  Power......Page 276
 Apparatus and/or Instruments......Page 278
 Scheduling of Research Participants......Page 280
 Consent to Participate......Page 281
 Instructions......Page 282
  Debriefing Functions......Page 283
  How to Debrief......Page 284
 Pilot Study......Page 286
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 287
 Practice Test......Page 288
 Challenge Exercise......Page 289
Chapter 10 Creating a Quasi-Experimental Design......Page 290
 Introduction......Page 291
 Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design......Page 293
   Outcome I: Increasing Control and Experimental Groups......Page 296
   Outcome II:Experimental-Group-Higher-than-Control-Group-at-Pretest Effect......Page 297
   Outcome IV: Crossover Effect......Page 298
  Ruling out Threats to the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design......Page 299
  Causal Inference from the Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design......Page 301
  Interrupted Time-Series Design......Page 302
 Regression Discontinuity Design......Page 304
 Summary......Page 307
 Related Internet Sites......Page 308
 Challenge Exercises......Page 309
 Introduction......Page 312
  History of Single-Case Designs......Page 313
 Single-Case Designs......Page 315
  ABA and ABAB Designs......Page 316
  Interaction Design......Page 319
  Multiple-Baseline Design......Page 320
  Changing-Criterion Design......Page 323
  Baseline......Page 325
  Changing One Variable at a Time......Page 326
  Length of Phases......Page 327
  Therapeutic Criterion......Page 328
 Summary......Page 330
 Practice Test......Page 332
 Challenge Exercises......Page 333
Chapter 12 The Survey as Non-Experimental Research......Page 334
 Introduction......Page 335
 When Should One Conduct Survey Research?......Page 337
 Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs......Page 339
 Selecting a Survey Data Collection Method......Page 341
 Constructing and Refining a Survey Instrument......Page 344
  Principle 4. Avoid Loaded or Leading Questions......Page 345
  Principle 5. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions......Page 346
  Principle 7. Determine whether Closed-Ended and/or Open-Ended Questions Are Needed......Page 347
  Principle 8. Construct Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Response Categories for Closed-Ended Questions......Page 348
  Principle 9. Consider the Different Types of Closed-Ended Response Categories Rating Scales......Page 349
   Rankings......Page 351
   Semantic Differential......Page 352
   Likert Scaling......Page 353
   Ordering of Questions......Page 354
   Contingency Questions......Page 355
   Response Bias......Page 356
 Selecting Your Survey Sample From the Population......Page 357
 Preparing and Analyzing Your Survey Data......Page 359
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 360
 Practice Test......Page 361
 Challenge Exercises......Page 362
Chapter 13 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research......Page 363
 Introduction......Page 364
 Research Validity in Qualitative Research......Page 365
  Descriptive Validity......Page 367
  Theoretical Validity......Page 368
  Internal Validity......Page 369
 Four Major Qualitative Research Methods......Page 370
  Phenomenological Data Collection and Data Analysis......Page 371
  Phenomenological Report Writing......Page 372
 Ethnography......Page 373
  Ethnographic Data Collection Methods......Page 374
  Entry, Group Acceptance, and Fieldwork......Page 375
  Data Analysis and Report Writing......Page 377
  Case Study Designs......Page 378
 Grounded Theory......Page 380
  Grounded Theory Data Analysis and Report Writing......Page 382
 Mixed Methods Research......Page 383
 Research Validity In Mixed Methods Research......Page 385
 Mixed Methods Designs......Page 386
 Summary......Page 389
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 390
 Practice Test......Page 391
 Challenge Exercises......Page 392
Chapter 14 Summarizing Research Data-Descriptive Statistics......Page 394
 Descriptive Statistics......Page 395
 Graphic Representations of Data......Page 398
  Histograms......Page 399
  Line Graphs......Page 400
  Scatterplots......Page 402
 Measures of Central Tendency......Page 404
  Mean......Page 405
 Measures of Variability......Page 406
  Variance and Standard Deviation......Page 407
   Z-scores......Page 409
  Unstandardized and Standardized Difference Between Group Means......Page 411
  Correlation Coefficient......Page 414
   Partial Correlation Coefficient......Page 418
  Regression Analysis......Page 419
  Contingency Tables......Page 423
 Key Terms and Concepts......Page 425
 Practice Test......Page 426
 Challenge Exercises......Page 427
Chapter 15 Using Inferential Statistics......Page 428
 Introduction......Page 429
 Sampling Distributions......Page 430
 Estimation......Page 432
 Hypothesis Testing......Page 434
  Directional Alternative Hypotheses......Page 440
  Review of the Logic of Hypothesis Testing......Page 441
  Hypothesis-Testing Errors......Page 442
  The t Test for Correlation Coefficients......Page 444
  One-Way Analysis of Variance......Page 446
  Post Hoc Tests in Analysis of Variance......Page 447
  Analysis of Covariance......Page 449
  Two-Way Analysis of Variance......Page 451
  One-Way Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance......Page 454
  The t Test for Regression Coefficients......Page 456
  Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables......Page 459
 Hypothesis Testing and Research Design......Page 460
 Summary......Page 463
 Related Internet Sites......Page 464
 Practice Test......Page 465
 Challenge Exercises......Page 466
Chapter 16 Preparing and Publishing the Research Report......Page 468
 Introduction......Page 469
 The APA Format......Page 471
  Writing Style......Page 481
   Specific Issues......Page 483
  Editorial Style......Page 484
   Headings......Page 485
   Tables......Page 486
   Figure Preparation......Page 488
   Reference Citations......Page 489
   Reference List......Page 490
 Submission of the Research Report for Publication......Page 492
 Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences......Page 494
  Poster Presentation......Page 495
 Summary......Page 497
 Related Internet Sites......Page 498
 Challenge Exercises......Page 499
Appendix......Page 500
 B......Page 501
 C......Page 502
 D......Page 503
 E......Page 504
 G......Page 505
 I......Page 506
 M......Page 507
 O......Page 508
 P......Page 509
 Q......Page 510
 R......Page 511
 S......Page 512
 T......Page 513
 W......Page 514
 Z......Page 515
References......Page 516
Index......Page 528