Renewable Energy, Fourth Edition: Physics, Engineering, Environmental Impacts, Economics & Planning

cover......Page 1
Other Books by the Author......Page 3
Renewable Energy......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Preface to Fourth Edition......Page 6
Preface to Third Edition......Page 7
Preface to Second Edition......Page 9
Preface to First Edition......Page 11
Units and Conversion Factors......Page 13
Current Renewable Energy Market......Page 15
Past and Present Energy Resources......Page 29
Energy History......Page 31
Resource Prospects for the Future......Page 40
Global Temperature Impacts and Other Climate Impacts......Page 41
Role of Environmental and Social Issues......Page 43
The Sustainability Test......Page 45
Solar Radiation......Page 47
The Birth and Main-sequence Stage of a Star......Page 48
Nuclear Reactions in the Sun......Page 50
Equilibrium Processes in the Sun......Page 55
The Energy Transport Equations......Page 57
A Model of the Solar Processes......Page 61
The Structure of the Solar Surface......Page 63
Radiation Received at the Earth......Page 66
Disposition of Radiation on the Earth......Page 67
Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere......Page 68
The Disposition of Incoming Radiation......Page 69
Direct and Scattered Radiation......Page 75
Disposition of Radiation at the Earth’s Surface......Page 76
Annual, Seasonal, and Diurnal Variations in the Radiation Fluxes at the Earth’s Surface......Page 81
Penetration of Solar Radiation......Page 85
Processes near the Surface of the Earth......Page 87
The Atmosphere......Page 88
Particles in the Atmosphere......Page 90
Absorption and Scattering in the Atmosphere......Page 93
Absorption Processes in Different Frequency Regions......Page 95
Models for the Description of Scattered Radiation......Page 98
The Types of Stored Energy......Page 100
Total Energy Fluxes......Page 102
Energy Transfer Processes......Page 106
The Description of Atmospheric Motion......Page 108
Features of the Observed Atmospheric Circulation......Page 110
Energy Conversion Processes and the Separation of Scales of Motion......Page 115
Creation and Destruction of Kinetic Energy......Page 116
Models of General Atmospheric Circulation......Page 118
The Water Cycle......Page 122
Evaporation Processes......Page 126
The State Variables of the Oceans......Page 127
Scales of Oceanic Motion......Page 130
Joint Models of General Circulation in Oceans and Atmosphere......Page 133
The Climate......Page 146
Climate Variables......Page 148
Stability of Climate......Page 150
The Ergodic Hypothesis......Page 152
The Undisturbed Energy Cycle......Page 153
Man’s Interference with the Energy Cycle......Page 158
The Carbon Cycle......Page 160
The Nitrogen Cycle......Page 162
Climate Changes......Page 165
Climatic History......Page 166
Causes of Climatic Change......Page 169
The White Earth State......Page 170
Man’s Interference with Climate......Page 173
Aerosols......Page 177
Carbon Dioxide......Page 179
Vertical Transport in the Atmosphere......Page 184
Water Transport......Page 186
The Disposition of Water and Heat in Soils......Page 187
Momentum Exchange Processes Between Atmosphere and Oceans......Page 190
The Basic Equations in Terms of Time-averaged Variables......Page 191
The Atmospheric Heat Source Function......Page 195
Separation of Scales of Motion......Page 197
Modeling the Oceans......Page 200
Basic Equations Governing the Oceanic Circulation......Page 201
Recent Model Applications Surveyed in the 4th IPCC Assessment......Page 203
Tides and Waves......Page 210
Gravity Waves in the Oceans......Page 211
The Formation and Dissipation of Energy in Wave Motion......Page 213
The Energy Flux Associated With Wave Motion......Page 214
Wind-driven Oceanic Circulation......Page 215
Direct Solar Energy......Page 217
Direct Radiation......Page 219
Dependence on Turbidity and Cloud Cover......Page 222
Scattered Radiation......Page 223
Reflected Radiation......Page 226
Average Behavior of Total Short-wavelength Radiation......Page 228
Inclined Surfaces......Page 232
Long-wavelength Radiation......Page 237
Empirical Long-wavelength Evidence for Inclined Surfaces......Page 239
Variability of Solar Radiation......Page 241
Power Duration Curves......Page 243
Wind......Page 244
The Horizontal Wind Profile......Page 245
Wind Speed Data......Page 248
Kinetic Energy in the Wind......Page 253
Power in the Wind......Page 255
Variability in Wind Power......Page 257
Power Duration Curves......Page 260
Ocean Currents......Page 262
Variability in Current Power......Page 263
River Flows, Hydropower, and Elevated Water Storage......Page 267
Geographical Distribution of Hydropower Resources......Page 269
Ocean Waves......Page 271
Wave Spectra......Page 272
Power in the Waves......Page 276
Waves in a Climatic Context......Page 279
Tides......Page 280
Heat Flows, Reservoirs, and Other Sources of Energy......Page 283
Solar-derived Heat Sources......Page 284
The Power in Ocean Thermal Gradients......Page 286
Temperature Gradients in Upper Soil and Air......Page 289
Geothermal Flows and Stored Energy......Page 290
Regions of Particularly High Heat Flow......Page 291
The Origin of Geothermal Heat......Page 292
Distribution of the Smoothly Varying Part of the Heat Flow......Page 294
Ocean Thermal and Salinity Gradients......Page 297
Salinity Differences......Page 298
Nuclear Energy......Page 300
Atmospheric Electricity......Page 305
Biological Conversion and Stores......Page 306
Mechanism of Green Plant Photosynthesis......Page 307
Details of Photosynthetic Processes......Page 311
Efficiency of Conversion......Page 328
Bacterial Photosynthesis......Page 330
Ecological Systems......Page 331
Limiting Factors......Page 332
Productivity Data......Page 339
I.4......Page 342
I.8......Page 343
I.11......Page 344
I.14......Page 345
Basic Principles of Energy Conversion......Page 346
Irreversible Thermodynamics......Page 349
Efficiency of an Energy Conversion Device......Page 352
Thermodynamic Engine Cycles......Page 354
Thermoelectric Generators......Page 357
Thermionic Generators......Page 360
Engine Conversion of Solar Energy......Page 361
Ericsson Hot-air Engine......Page 362
Heat Pump Operation......Page 364
Heat Exchange......Page 367
Geothermal and Ocean-thermal Conversion......Page 368
Conversion of Ocean Thermal Energy......Page 369
Basic Description of Flow-driven Converters......Page 370
Free-stream-flow Turbines......Page 372
Methods of Describing the Conversion of Wind Flows......Page 374
Propeller-type Converters......Page 378
Theory of Non-interacting Streamtubes......Page 379
Model Behavior of Power Output and Matching to Load......Page 383
Non-uniform Wind Velocity......Page 389
Restoration of Wind Profile in Wake, and Implications for Turbine Arrays......Page 394
Offshore Foundation Issues......Page 397
Cross-wind and Other Alternative Converter Concepts......Page 398
Performance of a Darrieus-type Converter......Page 399
Augmenters and Other “Advanced” Converters......Page 402
Ducted Rotor......Page 403
Rotor with Tip-vanes......Page 404
Other Concepts......Page 406
Heat, Electrical/Mechanical Power, and Fuel Generation......Page 407
Hydro and Tidal Energy Conversion......Page 409
Magneto-hydrodynamic Converters......Page 412
Wave Energy Conversion......Page 413
Pneumatic Converter......Page 416
Oscillating-vane Converter......Page 419
Photovoltaic Conversion......Page 422
The p–n Junction......Page 427
Solar Cells......Page 431
Design of Photovoltaic Converters......Page 437
Monocrystalline Silicon Cells......Page 440
Multicrystalline Cells......Page 442
Stacked Cells......Page 443
Amorphous Cells......Page 445
Module Construction......Page 448
Use of Residual Energy......Page 449
Photo-electrochemical Conversion......Page 450
Heat Generation......Page 459
Flat-plate Collectors......Page 462
Stalled and Operating Collector......Page 468
Flat-plate Collector with Heat Storage......Page 471
Concentrators and Solar-thermal Electricity Generators......Page 475
Energy Collection from Focusing Systems......Page 478
Photo-thermoelectric Converter Design......Page 480
Optical Subsystem and Concentrators......Page 483
Solar Cooling and Other Applications......Page 489
Electrochemical Energy Conversion......Page 493
Fuel Cells......Page 494
Fuel-cell Design......Page 498
Conversion of Ocean Salinity Gradients......Page 503
Bioenergy Conversion Processes......Page 505
Combustion and Composting of Biomass......Page 506
Producing Heat by Burning Biomass......Page 508
Composting......Page 511
Metabolic Heat......Page 513
Biological Conversion into Gaseous Fuels......Page 514
Biogas......Page 515
Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 524
Hydrogen-producing Cultures......Page 525
Thermochemical Gasification of Biomass......Page 526
Fresh Biomass Gasification......Page 527
Direct Photosynthetic Production of Hydrocarbons......Page 531
Alcohol Fermentation......Page 532
Methanol from Biomass......Page 537
Enzymatic Decomposition of Cellulosic Material......Page 539
Energy Transmission......Page 541
District Heating Lines......Page 542
Normal Conducting Lines......Page 544
Superconducting Lines......Page 546
Fuel Transmission......Page 547
Heat Storage......Page 548
Heat Capacity Storage......Page 549
Solar Ponds and Aquifer Storage......Page 559
Medium- and High-temperature Storage......Page 561
Latent Heat and Chemical Transformation Storage......Page 563
High-quality Energy Storage......Page 572
Pumped Hydro Storage......Page 574
Flywheels......Page 577
Compressed Gas Storage......Page 585
Hydrogen Production......Page 593
Hydrogen Storage Forms......Page 595
Metal Hydride Storage......Page 596
Battery Storage......Page 597
The Lead–acid Battery......Page 599
Alkaline Electrolyte Batteries......Page 600
Lithium-ion Batteries......Page 601
Reversible Fuel Cells (Flow Batteries)......Page 603
Direct Storage of Light......Page 604
Superconducting Storage......Page 606
II.2......Page 608
II.4......Page 609
II.8......Page 610
II.13......Page 611
II.16......Page 612
II.21......Page 613
Methodology of Energy Planning......Page 614
Use of the Scenario Concept......Page 615
Treatment of the Time Variable......Page 616
Runaway Precursor Scenario......Page 619
Stability Precursor Scenario......Page 620
Low-energy-demand Precursor Scenario......Page 621
Catastrophe Precursor Scenario......Page 622
Rational Investment Precursor Scenario......Page 623
Maximum-efficiency Precursor Scenario......Page 624
Load Structure......Page 625
Biologically Acceptable Surroundings......Page 628
Food and Water......Page 634
Relations......Page 635
Activities......Page 636
Summary of End-use Energy Requirements......Page 638
Patterns of Time Variations......Page 646
Photovoltaic Power Production......Page 650
Wind-power Production......Page 654
Industry Development......Page 661
New Method for Estimating Offshore Wind-power Production......Page 668
Food Production......Page 679
Biofuel Production......Page 682
System Choice and Optimization......Page 687
Consistency of Simulation......Page 688
Local Systems......Page 689
Model Description......Page 690
Solar Radiation Data Used......Page 691
Heat Load of an Individual House......Page 693
Heat-pump Systems......Page 699
Software Validation and Results of Simulations......Page 700
Small PVT System Simulation......Page 702
Medium-size PVT System Simulation......Page 705
Large PVT System Simulation......Page 709
PVT Systems with Heat Pump......Page 713
Wind Electricity Systems......Page 715
Wind-power System without Energy Storage......Page 718
Regulation of a Fuel-based Back-up System......Page 721
Simple Extrapolation Model......Page 722
Summary of Simulation Results......Page 725
Stochastic Model......Page 728
Wind-forecasting Model......Page 730
Wind Systems with Short-term Storage......Page 731
Results of Simulation Studies......Page 734
Wind-power Systems with Long-term Storage......Page 739
Regional Systems......Page 741
Biologically Acceptable Surroundings......Page 742
Human Relations......Page 743
Human Activities......Page 744
Mediterranean Region......Page 745
North America......Page 758
Northern Europe......Page 760
A Global Energy Scenario......Page 768
Social Values and the Introduction of Monetary Economy......Page 788
Economic Theory......Page 789
Production Planning......Page 792
Distribution Problems......Page 794
Actual Pricing Policies......Page 796
Direct Cost and Inflation......Page 797
Private and Social Interest Rate, Intergenerational Interest......Page 798
Net Present Value Calculation......Page 800
Cost Profiles and Break-even Prices......Page 802
Energy Analysis......Page 807
Local and National Economy......Page 809
National Economy......Page 811
Employment......Page 813
Use of Subsidies for Introducing “Appropriate Technology”......Page 814
Regional and Global Economy......Page 817
An Example: Privatization of the Energy Industry......Page 819
Life-cycle Analysis......Page 822
Methodology of Life-cycle Analysis......Page 823
Treatment of Import and Export......Page 826
What to Include in an LCA......Page 829
Qualitative or Quantitative Estimates of Impacts......Page 833
Treatment of Risk-related Impacts and Accidents in LCA......Page 834
Choosing the Context......Page 835
Aggregation Issues......Page 836
Social Context......Page 839
Monetizing Issues......Page 841
Statistical Value of Life......Page 842
Chain Calculations......Page 844
Matrix Calculations......Page 847
Marginal Versus Systemic Change......Page 849
Communicating with Decision-makers......Page 850
Application of Life-cycle Analysis......Page 854
LCA of Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 855
Greenhouse-warming Impacts......Page 858
Estimating Greenhouse-warming Externalities for Fuel Combustion......Page 863
Coal-fired Power Station......Page 866
Nuclear Fuel Chain......Page 868
Wind Power......Page 872
Photovoltaic Power......Page 876
Biogas Plants......Page 880
LCA of Energy Systems......Page 884
Proposed Fossil-fuel Phase-out Route......Page 886
Possible Objections to the Per Capita Approach......Page 892
Greenhouse Warming Adaptation......Page 893
Ecological Sustainability......Page 894
III.1......Page 900
III.3......Page 901
III.7......Page 902
III.11......Page 903
III.12......Page 904
References......Page 905
B......Page 946
C......Page 947
E......Page 948
F......Page 949
H......Page 950
M......Page 951
P......Page 952
R......Page 953
S......Page 954
T......Page 955
W......Page 956
Z......Page 957