Release and Bioavailability of Nanoencapsulated Food Ingredients (Volume 5) (Nanoencapsulation in the Food Industry (Volume 5))

Cover
RELEASE AND
BIOAVAILABILITY OF
NANOENCAPSULATED
FOOD INGREDIENTS
Copyright
Dedication
Contributors
Preface to Vol. 5
Importance of release and bioavailability studies for nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Controlled release versus targeted release
	Different approaches for studying the release profile
		In vitro assays
		In vivo assays
	Modeling of release data
		Empirical and semi-empirical models
		Mechanistic models
		Probabilistic models
		Intelligent models
	Bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Biological fate of nanoencapsulated food bioactives
		Mucoadhesive delivery systems
		Bioavailability analysis
	Conclusion
	References
Section A: Mechanisms of bioactive release from nanoencapsulated food systems
Controlled release of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Controlled release of food ingredients
	Release mechanisms
		Diffusion
		Dissolution
		Erosion
		Swelling
		Osmosis
		Degradation
		Fragmentation
	Release profile
	Implications of the GIT on the controlled release
	Factors affecting controlled release of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Properties of bioactive component
		Matrix (encapsulant) properties
		Environmental conditions
	Designing release profiles to achieve a controlled release
		Diffusion-controlled release systems
		Barrier-controlled release systems
		Pressure-activated release systems
		Solvent-activated release systems
		Osmotically controlled release systems
		pH-controlled release systems
		Temperature-sensitive release systems
		Melting-activated release systems
		Combined systems
		Engineered nanostructures
	Controlled release of particular encapsulated food ingredients
		Flavors and aromas
		Vitamins and minerals
		Preservatives, antimicrobial agents, and essential oils
		Phenolic compounds and antioxidants
		Carotenoids, essential fatty acids, and functional oils
		Probiotics
		Bioactive peptides and proteins
		Enzymes
	Conclusion and final remarks
	References
	Further reading
Targeted release of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Nanocarriers for targeted release of bioactive compounds
		Nanoemulsions
			Fabrication of nanoemulsions
			Digestion mechanisms and controlled release behavior of nanoemulsion systems
			Application
		Nanoliposomes
			Fabrication of nanoliposomal delivery systems
			Digestion mechanisms of nanoliposomes and controlled release of respective structures
			Application
		Nanohydrogels
			Fabrication of nanohydrogels
			Digestion mechanisms and controlled release behavior of nanohydrogels
			Application
		Lipid nanoparticles
			Fabrication of SLNs
			Digestion mechanisms and controlled release behavior of SLNs
			Application
		Coacervates (complex formation)
			Fabrication of complexes
			Digestion mechanisms and controlled release behavior of complexes
			Application
	Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive-loaded nanocarriers
	Targeted release of different nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Industrial applications
	Future trends and concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
Section B: Different approaches for studying the release profile of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
In vitro assays for evaluating the release of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Influence of GIT factors on bioavailability of nutraceuticals
		Bioaccessibility
			Stages of the GIT
				Mouth
				Stomach
				Small intestine
				Colon
			Release of nutraceuticals from the food matrix and delivery systems in GI fluids
			Solubility of nutraceuticals in GI fluids
				Solubility of hydrophilic nutraceuticals
				Solubility of lipophilic nutraceuticals
			Interaction of nutraceuticals with other components in the GIT
		Absorption
			Mucus layer transport
			Biological membrane transport
				Passive membrane transport
				Active membrane transport
		Transformation
	Classification of bioactive ingredients based on their bioavailability
		Pharmaceuticals classification
			Lipinskis rule of five
			Biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS)
				Class I: High solubility, high permeability
				Class II: Low solubility, high permeability
				Class III: High solubility, low permeability
				Class IV: Low solubility, low permeability
		Nutraceuticals classification
	In vitro methods for measuring bioaccessibility and bioavailability
		In vitro static digestion models
			Digestion conditions and rheological properties
			Content of simulated GI fluids
		In vitro static absorption models
		In vitro dynamic digestion models
	Future trends
	References
	References
	Further reading
In vivo assays for evaluating the release of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Functionality and applicability of nanodelivery systems
	Release and bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Controlled release of bioactive compounds
		Bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food bioactives
	Efficiency of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
		Cell culture studies (in vitro)
		Animal studies (in vivo)
	Common model organisms for in vivo studies of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Limitations of in vivo assays
	Conclusion
	References
Section C: Modeling of release data from nanoencapsulated food ingredients
Release modeling of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by empirical and semiempirical models
	Introduction
	Ficks law of diffusion
	Empirical and semiempirical release models
		Zero-order model
		First-order model
		Higuchi model
		Korsmeyer-Peppas and Ritger-Peppas model
		Peppas and Sahlin model
		Weibull model
		Hopfenberg model
		Cooney model
		Baker-Lonsdale model
		Hixson and Crowell model
	Selection of the best model in release studies
	Release modeling of food ingredients by empirical and semiempirical models
	Conclusion
	References
Release modeling of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by mechanistic models
	Introduction
	Definitions
		Mechanistic theories
		Dissolution
		Diffusion
		Swelling
		Erosion
	Types of mechanistic realistic modeling in controlled release
		Modeling based on Ficks law of diffusion
			Diffusion in bioactive release
			Reservoir systems
				Non-constant activity sources
				Constant activity sources
			Matrix systems
				Monolithic solutions
				Monolithic dispersions
		Modeling based on swelling
		Modeling base on erosion/degradation
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
Release modelling of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by probabilistic models: Cellular Automata and Mont ...
	Introduction
	Probabilistic modeling: Methodology
		Cellular automata
		Agent-based modeling
		MC methods
	Polymer release theory and probabilistic models
		Important polymer release phenomena
			Fundamental modeling methods in drug delivery
		Challenges posed by mechanistic and empirical models
			The principal classical equations
				Noyes-Whitney equation
				Higuchi equation
				Peppas equation
		Probabilistic models
			Application of direct MC methods in simulating polymer release
			CA in direct MC methods
		Probabilistic methods in the delivery of nanomaterials
			Nanomaterials in the delivery of functional foods
			Nanoparticulate release mechanisms
			MC methods in nanomaterials delivery
			CA and ABMs in nanomaterials delivery
		Combined ABM and CA Monte-Carlo models for controlled polymer release: A case study for drug release
	Summary
	References
	Further reading
Release modeling of nanoencapsulated food ingredients by artificial intelligence algorithms
	Introduction
	Artificial neural networks (ANNs)
		Background considerations
		ANN applications in release modeling of bioactive ingredients
	Integrated artificial neural network-Fuzzy logic systems (ANFIS)
		Background considerations
		ANFIS for release modeling
	Application of genetic algorithms in release modeling
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
Section D: Bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food ingredients
Biological fate of nanoencapsulated food bioactives
	Introduction
	Fate of encapsulated ingredients in the digestive tract
		Mouth
			Release of flavors in the mouth
			Emulsion-based delivery systems
			Complex coacervation-based delivery systems
			Emerging technologies
			Strategies to prevent the release of bioactive compounds in the mouth
			Interaction of delivery systems under oral conditions
		Stomach
			Strategies to prevent the degradation of probiotics in the stomach
			Emulsion-based delivery systems
			Emerging technologies
		Small intestine
			Bioaccessibility
			Bioavailability
		Large intestine
	Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
Mucoadhesive delivery systems for nanoencapsulated food ingredients
	Introduction
	Anatomy of the oral mucosa
	Oral mucosa: A barrier to permeability
	Mucoadhesion theories of polymer attachment
		Electronic theory
		Wetting theory
		Adsorption theory
		Diffusion interlocking theory
		Fracture theory
		Mechanical theory
	Methods of measuring mucoadhesion
		In vitro and ex vivo analysis
			Tensile strength
			Rheological method
			Gut sac of rats
			Flow-through method
			Microscopy method
			Flow channel method
			Mucin-particle method
			BIACORE method
			Ellipsometry
			Surface force measurements
			Cell culture method
			Spectroscopy methods
			Spectrophotometric methods
			Rotating cylinder method
			Thumb test
			Analytical ultracentrifugation
			Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D)
			Washability test
		In vivo analysis
			Imaging methods
			Spectrophotometry
			Microscopy
			Mucoadhesion time (direct examination)
	Factors affecting mucoadhesion
		Functional groups contribution
		Hydrophilicity
		Molecular weight
		Cross-linking and swelling
		Chain length
		pH and charge
		Concentration
		Bioactive/excipient concentration
	Common sites of application for engineered mucoadhesive delivery platforms
		Buccal
		Gastroenteric tract
		Other sites
			Ophthalmic
			Nasal
			Vaginal
	Mucoadhesive polymers
		Charged polymers
			Anionic polymers
			Cationic polymers
			Uncharged polymers
		Lectins
			Plant lectins
			Animal lectins
			Microbial lectins
		Thiolated polymers (thiomers)
		Acrylates
		Chitosan
		Cellulose derivatives
		Hyaluronic acid
		Gellan gum
		Alginate
		Poloxamers
		Pectins
		Starch
		Polyethylene glycol
		Composite materials
	Pharmaceutical buccal mucoadhesive dosage forms
		Buccal tablets
		Buccal patches
		Buccal films
		Buccal gels and ointments
		Particulate systems
		Wafers
	Conclusion
	References
Bioavailability of nanoencapsulated food bioactives
	Introduction
	Encapsulation techniques
		Design of the nanoencapsulated particles
		Critical factors in selecting wall materials
	Factors affecting the release mechanisms
	Factors affecting bioavailability
	Models of bioavailability analysis
	Bioavailability of different bioactive food ingredients
		Phenolic compounds and antioxidants
		Bioavailability of phytosterols
		Bioavailability of vitamins
		Bioavailability of minerals
		Bioavailability of fish oil
		Bioavailability of carotenoids
	Conclusion and further remarks
	References
	Further reading
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	Z
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