Rehabilitation Research: Principles and Applications, 5e

Front Cover
Rehabilitation Research: Principles and Applications
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgment
Contents
Section One: Research Fundamentals
	Chapter 1: Rehabilitation Research
		Definitions of research
			Research Challenges the Status Quo
			Research Is Creative
			Research Is Systematic
		Reasons for developing rehabilitation research
			Develop Body of Knowledge
			Determine Whether Interventions Work
			Improve Patient and Client Care
		Barriers to rehabilitation research
			Lack of Funds
			Lack of Research Mentors
			Lack of Time
			Lack of Familiarity with the Research Process
			Lack of Statistical Support
			Ethical Concerns About Use of Human Participants and Animal Subjects
			The Clinician-Researcher Dichotomy
			Overcoming Barriers
			The Scientist-Practitioner
		Status of rehabilitation research
			Professional Association Goals
			Research Publication Vehicles
			Educational Standards
			Research Funding
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 2: Theory in Rehabilitation Research
		Relationships Among Theory, Research, and Practice
		Definitions of Theory
			Level of Restrictiveness
				Least Restrictive Definition
				Moderately Restrictive Definition
				Most Restrictive Definition
			Tentativeness of Theory
			Testability of Theory
		Scope of Theory
			Metatheory
			Grand Theory
			General, or Middle-Range, Theory
			Specific, or Practice, Theory
		Evaluating Theory
		Putting Theory into Practice: Research, Questions, Hypotheses, and Problems
			Developing Answerable Research Questions
			Topic Identification and Selection
			Problem Identification and Selection
			Theoretical Framework Identification and Selection
			Question Identification and Selection
			Research Methods Identification and Selection
			Criteria for Evaluating Research Problems
				Study Is Feasible
				Problem Is Interesting
				Problem Is Novel
				Problem Can Be Studied Ethically
				Question Is Relevant
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 3: Evidence-Based Practice
		The need or demand
		What is evidence-based practice?
		Evidence-based practice process
		Evaluating research studies
			Evaluating the Four Areas of Research Validity
			Written Evaluations of Research
		Instituting evidence-based practice
		Databases of evaluated studies
		Limitations of evidence-based practice
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 4: Finding Research Literature
		Reasons for searching the literature
		Types of information
		Types of professional literature
		Finding literature
			Electronic Databases Not Site Specific
			Search Fields
			Boolean Operations
			Search Limits
		Some common rehabilitation databases
			PubMed (MEDLINE)
			EMBASE
			Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL)
			PsycINFO
			Educational Resource Information Center (ERIC)
			SPORTDiscus
			Google Scholar
			HighWire Press
			Web of Science
			Dissertation Abstracts International
			Evidence-Based Review Databases
		Library catalogs
		Reference lists and bibliographies
		Single-journal indexes or databases
		Organizing your search
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 5: Research Ethics
		Boundaries between practice and research
		Moral principles of action
			The Principle of Beneficence
			The Principle of Nonmaleficence
			The Principle of Utility
			The Principle of Autonomy
			Health Information Portability and Accountability Act
			Other Moral Principles
		Informed consent
		Research codes of ethics
			Informed Consent
			Design Justifies Study
			Avoidance of Suffering and Injury
			Risk Is Commensurate with Potential Benefit
			Independent Review
			Publication Integrity
			Explicit Attention to Ethics
			Ethics in Professional Codes
		Research risks
			Physical Risks
			Psychological Risks
			Social Risks
			Economic Risks
		Summary
		References
Section Two: Research Design
	Chapter 6: Research Paradigms
		Quantitative paradigm
			Assumptions of the Quantitative Paradigm
				Assumption 1: Single Objective Reality
				Assumption 2: Independence of Investigator and Subjects
				Assumption 3: Generalizability of Results
				Assumption 4: Determining Causation
				Assumption 5: Value Free
			Quantitative Methods
				Theory
				Selection
				Measurement
				Manipulation
				Control
		Qualitative paradigm
			Assumptions of the Qualitative Paradigm
				Assumption 1: Multiple Constructed Realities
				Assumption 2: Interdependence of Investigator and Subjects
				Assumption 3: Results Specific to Time and Context
				Assumption 4: No Causation
				Assumption 5: Value Laden
			Qualitative Methods
				Theory
				Selection
				Measurement
				Manipulation and Control
		Single-subject paradigm
			Assumptions of the Single-Subject Paradigm
			Single-Subject Methods
				Theory
				Selection
				Measurement
				Manipulation and Control
		Relationships among the research paradigms
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 7: Variables
		Independent variables
		Levels of independent variables
		Active and assigned variables
			Dependent Variables
			Intervening Variables
			Confounding and Extraneous Variables
				Extraneous Variables in the Setting
				Extraneous Variables Related to Participants
		Functional relationships
		Graphs
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 8: Research Validity
		Internal validity
			Threats to Internal Validity
			History
			Maturation
			Testing
			Instrumentation
			Statistical Regression to the Mean
			Assignment (Subject Selection)
			Subject Attrition
			Interactions Between Assignment and Maturation, History, or Instrumentation
			Diffusion or Imitation of Treatments
			Compensatory Equalization of Treatments
			Compensatory Rivalry or Resentful Demoralization
		Construct validity
			Construct Underrepresentation
			Experimenter Expectancies
			Interaction Between Different Treatments
			Interaction Between Testing and Treatment
		External validity
			Selection
			Setting
			Time
			External Validity in Single-Subject Research
			External Validity in Qualitative Research
		Relationships among types of validity
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 9: Selection and Assignment of Participants
		Significance of sampling and assignment
		Population and samples
		Probability sampling
			Simple Random Sampling
			Systematic Sampling
			Stratified Sampling
			Cluster Sampling
		Nonprobability sampling
			Samples of Convenience
			Snowball Sampling
			Purposive Sampling
		Assignment to groups
			Random Assignment by Individual
			Random Assignment by Block
			Systematic Assignment
			Matched Assignment
			Consecutive Assignment
			Deciding on an Assignment Method
		Sample size
		Summary
		References
Section Three: Experimental Designs
	Chapter 10: Group Designs
		Assumptions of group designs
		Randomized controlled trials
			Practical Considerations in RCTs
			Cautions About RCTs
		Single-factor experimental designs
			Pretest – Posttest Control Group Design
			Posttest-Only Control Group Design
			Single-Group Pretest – Posttest Design
			Nonequivalent Control Group Design
			Time Series Design
			Repeated Measures or Repeated Treatment Designs
		Multiple-factor experimental designs
			Questions That Lead to a Multiple-Factor Design
			Factorial Versus Nested Designs
			Completely Randomized Versus Randomized-Block Designs
			Between-Groups, Within-Group, and Mixed Designs
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 11: Single-Subject Designs
		When to use single-subject designs
		Problems with group designs
		Characteristics of single-subject designs
		Single-subject designs
			A-B Designs
			Withdrawal Designs
			Multiple-Baseline Designs
			Alternating-Treatments Designs
			Interaction Designs
			Changing-Criterion Designs
		Graphing single-subject data
			Graphing Data for Alternating-Treatments Designs
		Considerations when using single-subject designs
		Limitations of single-subject designs
		Summary
		References
Section Four: Nonexperimental Research for Rehabilitation
	Chapter 12: Overview of Nonexperimental Research
		Description
			Retrospective Descriptive Research
			Prospective Descriptive Research
				Observation
				Examination
				Interview
				Questionnaire
		Analysis of relationships
			Retrospective Analysis of Relationships
			Prospective Analysis of Relationships
		Analysis of differences
			Retrospective Analysis of Differences
			Prospective Analysis of Differences
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 13: Clinical Case Reports
		Contributions of case reports to theory and practice
		Purposes of case reports
			Sharing Clinical Experiences
			Illustrating Evidence-Based Practice
			Developing Hypotheses for Research
			Building Problem-Solving Skills
			Testing Theory
			Persuading and Motivating
			Helping to Develop Practice Guidelines and Pathways
		Format of case reports
		Summary
		References
Section Five: Research Beyond the Everyday
	Chapter 14: Qualitative Research
		Assumptions of the qualitative paradigm
		Qualitative designs
			Case Study
			Ethnography
			Phenomenology
			Grounded Theory
		Qualitative methods
			Sampling
			Data Collection
				Interview
					How to Interview
					Getting Information
					Giving Information
					Establishing a Relationship
					Ethnographic Interview
				Observation
					Techniques and Processes of Observation
				Artifacts
			Data Analysis
				Data Management
				Generating Meaning
				Verification
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 15: Epidemiology
		Ratios, proportions, and rates
			Ratios
			Proportions
			Rates
			Prevalence
			Incidence
			Relationship Between Incidence and Prevalence
			Crude, Specific, and Adjusted Rates
			Relative Risk: Risk Ratios and Odds Ratios
		Screening and diagnosis
			Some Concepts from Psychophysics
			Sensitivity and Specificity
				Receiver-Operating Characteristic Curves
				Likelihood Ratios
			Predictive Value
		Nonexperimental epidemiological designs
			Cross-Sectional Studies
			Case-Control Studies
			Cohort Studies
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 16: Outcomes Research
		Purpose of outcomes research
			Efficacy
			Effectiveness
		Frameworks for outcomes research
			Nagi Model
			International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps
			International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health
		Measurement tools for outcomes research
			Self-Assessment and Other Rating Scales
			Quality of Life
			Health-Related Quality of Life
				Short Form-36
				PROMIS
					Item Response Therapy and Computer Adaptive Testing
					Instruments, Current and Under Development
					Validation
			Condition-Specific Tools
			Patient-Specific Instruments
			Satisfaction
		Design issues for outcomes research
			Database Research
				Review of Existing Medical Records
				Abstracts of Medical Records
				Administrative Databases
				In-House Databases
				National Outcomes Databases
			Analysis Issues
				Case Mix Adjustments
				Techniques for Dealing with Missing Data
				Survival Analysis
				Comparisons Across Scales
				Multivariate Statistics
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 17: Survey Research
		Scope of survey research
		Types of information
		Types of items
			Open-Format Items
			Closed-Format Items
				Multiple Choice
				Likert Type
				Semantic Differential
				Q-Sort
		Implementation overview
			Need for Rigor
			Sample Size and Sampling
		Mailed surveys
			Access to a Sampling Frame
			Researcher-Developed Versus Existing Instruments
			Questionnaire Development
				Drafting
				Expert Review
				First Revision
				Pilot Test
				Final Revision
			Motivating Prospects to Respond
			Implementation Details
		Internet surveys
		Interview surveys
			Access to Prospective Participants
			Development of Interview Schedules
			Motivating Prospects to Participate
			Implementation Details
		Summary
		References
Section Six: Measurement
	Chapter 18: Measurement Theory
		Definitions of measurement
		Variable properties
		Scales of measurement
			Nominal Scales
			Ordinal Scales
			Interval Scales
			Ratio Scales
			Determining the Scale of a Measurement
		Types of variables
		Statistical foundations of measurement theory
			Frequency Distribution
			Mean
			Variance
			Standard Deviation
			Normal Curve
			Correlation Coefficient
			Standard Error of Measurement
		Measurement frameworks
		Measurement reliability and validity
			Measurement Reliability
				Two Theories of Reliability
				Components of Reliability
					Instrument Reliability
					Intrarater Reliability
					Interrater Reliability
					Intrasubject Reliability
				Quantification of Reliability
					Relative Reliability
					Absolute Reliability
			Measurement Validity
				Construct Validity
				Content Validity
				Criterion Validity
		Responsiveness to change
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 19: Methodological Research
		Reliability designs
			Sources of Variability
			Levels of Standardization
				Nonstandardized Approach
				Highly Standardized Approach
				Partially Standardized Approach
			Participant Selection
			Range of Scores
			Optimization Designs
				Standardization Designs
				Mean Designs
			Reliability in Nonmethodological Studies
		Validity designs
			Construct Validation
			Content Validation
			Criterion Validation
		Responsiveness designs
		Summary
		References
Section Seven: Data Analysis
	Chapter 20: Statistical Reasoning
		Data set
		Frequency distribution
			Frequency Distribution with Percentages
				Grouped Frequency Distribution with Percentages
				Frequency Histogram
				Stem-and-Leaf Plot
		Central tendency
			Mean
			Median
			Mode
		Variability
			Range
			Variance
			Standard Deviation
		Normal distribution
			z Score
			Percentages of the Normal Distribution
		Sampling distribution
			Confidence Intervals of the Sampling Distribution
		Significant difference
			Null Hypothesis
			Alpha Level
			Probability Determinants
				Between-Groups Difference
				Within-Group Variability
				Effect Size
				Sample Size
		Errors
		Power
		Statistical conclusion validity
			Low Power
			Lack of Clinical Importance
			Error Rate Problems
			Violated Assumptions
			Failure to Use Intention-to-Treat Analysis
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 21: Statistical Analysis of Differences: The Basics
		Distributions for analysis of differences
			t Distribution
			F Distribution
			Chi-Square Distribution
		Assumptions of tests of differences
			Random Selection from a Normally Distributed Population
			Homogeneity of Variance
			Level of Measurement
		Independence or dependence of samples
		Steps in the statistical testing of differences
		Statistical analysis of differences
			Differences Between Two Independent Groups
				Independent t Test
				Mann-Whitney or Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test
				Chi-Square Test of Association
			Differences Between Two or More Independent Groups
				One-Way ANOVA
				Kruskal-Wallis Test
				Chi-Square Test of Association
			Differences Between Two Dependent Samples
				Paired- t Test
				Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test
				McNemar Test
			Differences Between Two or More Dependent Samples
				Repeated Measures ANOVA
				Friedman' s ANOVA
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 22: Statistical Analysis of Differences:   Advanced
		Advanced anova techniques
			Differences Between More Than One Independent Variable
				Between-Subjects Two-Way ANOVA
				Mixed-Design Two-Way ANOVA
			Differences Across Several Dependent Variables
			Effect of Removing an Intervening Variable
		Analysis of single-subject designs
			Celeration Line Analysis
			Level, Trend, Slope, and Variability Analysis
			Two Standard Deviation Band Analysis
			C Statistic
		Survival analysis
			Survival Curves
			Differences Between Survival Curves
		Hypothesis testing with confidence intervals
			Review of Traditional Hypothesis Testing
			Foundations for Confidence Interval Testing
			Interpretation and Examples
		Power analysis
			Power Analysis—Design Phase
			Power Analysis—Analysis Phase
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 23: Statistical Analysis of Relationships: The Basics
		Correlation
			Calculation of the Pearson Product Moment Correlation
			Alternative Correlation Coefficients
			Assumptions of the Correlation Coefficients
			Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients
				Strength of the Coefficient
				Variance Shared by the Two Variables
				Statistical Significance of the Coefficient
				Confidence Intervals Around the Coefficient
				Limits of Interpretation
			Literature Examples
		Linear regression
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 24: Statistical Analysis of Relationships: Advanced
		Reliability analysis
			Pearson Product Moment Correlation with Extensions
			Intraclass Correlation Coefficients
			Kappa
		Multiple regression
			Variable Entry in Multiple Regression
			Interpretation of the Multiple Regression Equation
			Literature Examples
		Logistic regression
			Rationale for Logistic Regression
			Literature Examples
		Discriminant analysis
		Factor analysis
			Factor Analysis Steps
			Literature Examples
		Summary
		References
Section Eight: Being a Consumer of Research
	Chapter 25: Evaluating Evidence One Article at a Time
		Elements of a research article
		Guidelines for discussing published research
		Generic evaluation of original research studies
			Step 1: Classify the Research and Variables
			Step 2: Compare Purposes and Conclusions
			Step 3: Describe Design and Control Elements
			Step 4: Identify Threats to Research Validity
			Step 5: Place the Study in the Context of Other Research
			Step 6: Evaluate the Personal Utility of the Study
		Generic evaluation of review articles
			Step 1: Assess the Clarity of the Review Question
			Step 2: Evaluate the Article Identification and Selection Strategies
			Step 3: Determine How the Authors Assess Validity of the Studies
			Step 4: Evaluate the Results Against the Strength of the Evidence
			Step 5: Evaluate the Personal Utility of the Review
		Structured evaluation by clinical research issues
		Evaluation of levels of evidence
		Evaluation of randomized controlled trials
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 26: Synthesizing Bodies of Evidence
		Reasons to synthesize the literature
		Ways to synthesize the literature
			Narrative Reviews
			Systematic Reviews Without Meta-Analysis
			Systematic Reviews with Meta-Analysis
		Preparing for a systematic review
			Determine the Rationale and Purpose of the Review
			Identify the Literature
			Select Studies for Inclusion
		Synthesizing the literature
			Identify Important Characteristics of Individual Studies
			Determine the Quality of the Individual Studies
			Identify Important Constructs Across Studies
			Make Descriptive Comparisons Across Studies
			Pool Statistical Data Across Studies
			Specify Problems That Need Further Study
		Reporting on systematic reviews
			Describing Review Methods
			Presenting Review Results
		Summary
		References
Section Nine: Implementing Research
	Chapter 27: Implementing a Research Project
		The research “backstory”
		Proposal preparation
			General Proposal Guidelines
			Elements of the Research Proposal
				Title
				Investigators
				Problem Statement
				Purposes
				Methods
				Dissemination
				Budget
				Work Plan
				Appendices
				Approvals
		Human participants protection
			Institutional Review Boards
			Levels of Review
			Informed Consent
		Funding
			Budget
			Institution Funding
			Corporation Funding
			Foundation Funding
				Types of Foundations
				Identifying Foundations
				Applying for Foundation Funds
			Government Funding
		Obtaining participants
			Inpatient Recruitment
			Outpatient Recruitment
			Recruitment of the Lay Public
		Data collection
			Data Collection Procedures
			Safeguarding Data
			Protecting Participant Identity
			Data Recording Forms
			Pilot Study
			Scheduling Participants and Personnel
			Data Collection
		Data analysis
			Data Coding
			Data Entry
			Statistical Analysis
		Summary
		References
	Chapter 28: Publishing and Presenting Research
		Publication of research
			Types of Publications
			Peer Review Process
			Authorship and Acknowledgment
			Multiple Publication
			Style Issues
			Components of a Research Article
		Presentation of research
			Platform Presentations
			Poster Presentations
		Summary
		References
Appendix A: Random Numbers Table
Appendix B: Areas in One Tail of the Standard Normal Curve
Appendix C: Questions for Narrative Evaluation of a Research Article
	Step one
		Classification of Research and Variables
	Step two
		Analysis of Purposes and Conclusions
	Step three
		Analysis of Design and Control Elements
	Step four
		Validity Questions
	Step five
		Place Study into Literature Context
	Step six
		Personal Utility Questions
Appendix D: Basic Guidelines for Preparing a Journal Article Manuscript
	Method
		Participants
			Facility A
	References
Appendix E: American Medical Association Style: Sample Manuscript for a Hypothetical Study
Appendix F: American Psychological Association Style: Sample Manuscript for a Hypothetical Study
Appendix G: Sample Platform Presentation Script with Slides
Index
Mathematical and Statistical Symbols