Regional Geology and Tectonics: Principles of Geologic Analysis: Volume 1: Principles of Geologic Analysis

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Regional Geology and Tectonics: Volume 1: Principles of
Geologic Analysis
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Contents
List of Contributors
Foreword
Introduction
1 Regional geology and tectonics of sedimentary basins
	References
2 The Earth: core, mantle and crust
	Overview
	Methods of investigation
	The lithosphere
		The oceanic crust
		The continental crust
		The subcrustal lithosphere
	The mantle
	The core
	References
	Further reading
3 Age of the oceans
	Introduction
		Ocean basin research – historical perspective
	Dating the oceanic lithosphere
		Magnetic anomaly data
			Geomagnetic timescales
			Limitations and uncertainty in magnetic anomaly data
		Drill-core data
			Limitations and uncertainty in dated samples
		Age proxies
			Present-day oceanic lithosphere
			Volcanic additions and extended continental margin features
	Mapping seafloor age
		Gridding methods
		Uncertainty quantification
	Final remarks
	References
	Further reading
4 Plate boundaries and driving mechanisms
	Introduction
	Boundaries
		Divergent/constructive
			In oceanic lithosphere
			In continental lithosphere
		Convergent/destructive
			Involving subduction
			In continental lithosphere
		Conservative/strike-slip
			In oceanic lithosphere
			In continental lithosphere
			Between oceanic and continental lithosphere
		Oblique, partitioned-strain, and diffuse plate boundaries
	Driving mechanisms of plate motion
		The torque balance
			Negative buoyancy of slabs (slab pull and slab-normal forces)
			Slab resistance and collision resistance
			Slab suction
			Transform shear
			Gravitational body forces/rifts and ‘ridge push’
			Basal shear force
	Summary
	References
5 Plate kinematic reconstructions
	Introduction
	Making plate kinematic reconstructions
		The history and workspace of plate kinematic reconstructions
		Rotations
		Requirements for reliable reconstructions
		Choices of markers
			Apparent paleomagnetic poles
			Intraplate volcanic chains/hotspots
			Magnetic reversal isochrons
			Fracture zones
			Continent–ocean boundaries
			Piercing points from intracontinental structures
			Diffuse and regional markers
			Mantle constraints – subducted slabs in tomography
		Model production and assessment
			Interactive visual forward modelling
			Statistical modelling
		Regional/global models with multiple plates
			Absolute plate motion and reference frames for reconstructions
				Hotspot reference frame
				Paleomagnetic reference frame
				Lower mantle slabs reference frame
				Large Low-shear-velocity provinces
	Using plate reconstructions
		As context for regional geological and tectonic studies
			The Alps as a previously extended continental margin
			The collision of India with Eurasia and shortening of the Indian continent
			Plate reconstructions as boundary conditions for palinspastic reconstructions and palinspastically reconstructed markers in...
		In paleogeography/paleobathymetry/paleotopography
		For geodynamic studies
			The Indian plate and plume influences on plate motion
			Global tectonic reorganizations
	Summary
	References
	Further reading
6 Resolving geological enigmas using plate tectonic reconstructions and mantle flow models
	Introduction
	The evolution of the plate reconstruction method
	Global plate reconstructions
		Relative and absolute plate motions
		Early plate reconstruction approaches
		Linking plate reconstructions with mantle flow
		Using global plate reconstructions to better understand the Earth system
	India-Eurasia collision
	Sundaland and New Guinea
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
7 Tectonostratigraphic Megasequences and Chronostratigraphy
	References
	Further reading
8 Fault classification, fault growth and displacement
	Introduction
	What is a fault?
		Fault anatomy
		Fault drag
	Fault orientations, stress, strain and kinematics
		Relation between faults and stress
		Strain and fault orientation patterns
	Displacement distributions on faults
	Fault initiation
		Fault formation from scratch
		Faulting by activation of preexisting structures
	Fault growth
	Fault interaction and linkage
	Fault populations
	Faults and fluids
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
9 Thrust systems and contractional tectonics
	Historical perspectives – 100 years of thrust belt research
	The geometry of thrust systems
	Thrusts in three dimension
	Balanced cross-sections
	Insights from marine seismic imaging
	Mechanical context: the critical wedge
	Basement and crust
	Other structural styles
	Thrust sequences and activity
	Interpretation – looking ahead
	References
	Further reading
10 Inverted fault systems and inversion tectonic settings
	Introduction
	Reactivation of earlier fault systems
	Defining a change in stress regime
	Recognizing inversion in settings dominated by thin-skinned structures
	Recognizing inversion in transpressional and transtensional settings
	Role of inversion in facilitating propagation of larger fold-thrust belts
	Case Study 1: inversion of extensional faults in a foreland basin, Western Newfoundland, Canada
	Case Study 2: inversion of extensional faults in a collapsing compressional orogen, Northeast Thailand
	Case Study 3: inversion of intermittent extensional faults in multiple tectonic settings and interaction of thick- and thin...
	Case Study 4: variable inversion of extensional faults with different orientations in a failed intracratonic rift, Central ...
	Case Study 5: orogen-scale inversion of extensional faults in a rift system that evolved into a back-arc basin and regional...
	Case Study 6: inversion of extensional faults in a failed continental rift, the Wessex Basin, southern United Kingdom
	Case Study 7: inversion of extensional faults in a rift basin: New Zealand
	Case Study 8: inversion of extensional faults in Late-Orogenic molasse basins that evolved to a later continental margin an...
	Case Study 9: inversion with significant mechanical contrasts and ductile deformation near a collisional suture on a distal...
	Inversion structures and economic implications: petroleum system elements and mineral deposits
	Timing of inversion relative to extension
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Further reading
11 Salt- and shale-detached gravity-driven failure of continental margins
	Introduction
	Gravity-driven failure
		Mechanics
		Processes
	Distribution of detachment layer
	Structural styles
		Extensional province
		Translational province
		Contractional province
		Strike-slip structures
	Diapirism
		Extensional salt diapirism
		Contractional salt diapirism
		Strike-slip salt diapirism
		Loading-driven salt evacuation and diapirism
		Diapir dissolution
		Shale diapirism
	Allochthonous salt
		Emplacement
		Styles
		Distribution and impact on gravity-driven failure
	Concluding remarks
	Acknowledgements
	References
12 Carbonate systems
	Introduction
		The conceptual space in sedimentary geology
		Carbonate factories
	Food and feeding/follow the food
		The proton link
		The food web
	Boundary layers
		Fair-weather and storm wave bases
		Preservation potential of sedimentary structures
		Light penetration
		Pycnoclines
			Deep pycnoclines
			Shallow pycnoclines
			Internal waves
			Hummocky cross-stratification
	Feed and food: feasting at the pycnoclines
		Nutrients and plankton
		Mounds and platform margins
	Carbonate production modes
		The proton play
		Biotic carbonate production modes
			Biologically induced carbonates
			Biologically influenced carbonates
			Biologically controlled carbonates
				Foraminifers
				Coccoliths
				Molluscs
	Carbonate production systems through Earth’s history
		Archean
		The great oxygenation event
		Banded iron formations, were them the photosynthetic oxygen sinks?
		Early Proterozoic carbonates
		The Meso-Neoproterozoic carbonate production modes
		Prokaryotes, eukaryotes and multicellular forms
		The Phanerozoic carbonates
			Feed and food again: the eukaryotic phytoplankton
				The green plastid lineage
				The red plastid lineage
			Sclerotization: two episodes
			The Phanerozoic performance
				Early Palaeozoic
				Middle Palaeozoic
				Late Palaeozoic
				Triassic-Jurassic
				Cretaceous
				Cenozoic
	Platform types
		Rimmed platforms
			Microbialite rimmed platforms
				Carboniferous platforms in Asturias
				Triassic Latemar platform
			Nonskeletal and skeletal metazoan rimmed platforms
				Devonian carbonate platforms from Canning basin
				Permian Capitan
			Waulsortian-like mud mounds
			Skeletal rimmed platforms
				The Miocene Llucmajor Platform, Mallorca: sea-level attached rim
				Upper Cretaceous Vilanoveta platforms: pycnocline-related attached rim
				Palaeocene (Danian) Lizarraga platform
		Physical accommodation-predominant platforms: grainy systems
			Euphotic shallow-water production
			Meso-oligophotic production
				The Miocene Migjorn ramp
				The Eocene Urbasa-Andia low-angle ramp
				The Oligo-Miocene Perla Field, offshore Venezuela
				The Eocene Buil nummulitic banks
				Permian Upper San Andres Formation
				Distally steepened ram versus infralittoral prograding wedge
			Oligophotic to aphotic production
				The Middle Miocene Lazio-Abruzzo low-angle ramp
			Mud dominated–producing biota
		Corollary
			Mono- versus multifactory platforms
				Mono-factory platforms
				Multifactory platforms
				Interaction among coeval carbonate factories: promotion versus suffocation
				Alternation of carbonate factories
			Skeletal grain associations: use and abuse
			Carbonate platform shedding
			Sequence stratigraphy in carbonates: illusion, mirage or hallucination
	Acknowledgements
	References
13 Lake systems and their economic importance
	Introduction to lakes and lake systems
	Lakes in time and space; preservation of lakes in the Phanerozoic rock record
	Classification of lakes; the different settings for lakes
	Conditions needed to create and maintain a tectonic lake with well-developed lake sequences
	Megasequences, sequences and cycles in basins containing tectonic lakes
	Controls on lake sequences and sequence stratigraphy
	Important differences between lake and marine sequence stratigraphy
	Principal depositional environments in lake basins
	Predicting lake sequences and facies
	Major petroleum systems involving lake sequences
	Features of potential petroleum source rocks that develop in lakes
	Petroleum systems in Early Cretaceous and Tertiary lake basins of South and East Asia
	Acknowledgement
	References
14 Clastic shorelines and deltas
	Introduction
	Shoreline and deltaic processes
		Waves and associated processes
		Tidal processes
		River-mouth processes
		Sediment gravity flows
		Ichnological processes
	Universal building blocks of all clastic systems
	Deltas: river-fed shorelines
		Classification of deltas
		Depositional environments of deltas
		Facies and architecture of deltas
		Case studies of deltas
	Wave-dominated, nondeltaic shorelines
	Tide-dominated, nondeltaic shorelines
	Acknowledgements
	References
15 Tidal straits: basic criteria for recognizing ancient systems from the rock record
	What are tidal straits?
	Why are tidal straits important?
	Sedimentary dynamics of modern tidal straits (what we presently know and what we still need to know)
		Towards a conceptual model for tidal straits
		The hydrodynamics of tidal straits
			Definition of ‘flood’ and ‘ebb’ tidal components in a strait
			Cross-sectional distribution of the tidal power in a strait
			Tidal asymmetry in straits
		Main depositional zones in tidal straits
			The strait-centre zone
			The dune-bedded zone
			The strait-end zones
			The strait-margin zones
	The stratigraphic and sedimentary record of ancient tidal straits with some example
		The Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway
		The late Miocene multiple straits of the Betic Corridor
		The Quaternary straits of Calabria, southern Italy
	Criteria for recognizing tidal straits in outcrop or subsurface successions
		Stratigraphic criteria
			Location of the strait-centre zone
			Large-scale stratigraphic architectures of strait-fill dune-bedded complexes
			Vertical facies tracts
			Ancient tidal dunes in straits and their internal architectures
		Sedimentological criteria
			Strait-centre facies
			Dune-bedded facies
				Herringbone cross-stratification
				Trough or festoon (three-dimensional) and tabular or planar (two-dimensional) cross-stratification
				Simple and compound foreset architectures
				Reactivation surfaces
				Neap-spring, coarsening-to-fining lamina intervals
				Tidal bundles
			Strait-end facies
			Strait-margin facies
	Concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
16 Submarine landslides – architecture, controlling factors and environments. A summary
	Introduction
	Classifications
		Types of movement
		Frontally confined versus frontally emergent landslides
		Attached versus detached landslides
	Structural architecture of submarine landslides
		Headwall domain
		Translational domain
		Toe domain
	Mechanics of slope failures, preconditioning and triggering factors
		Slope steepening
		Pore fluid pressure
		Earthquakes
		Waves
		Sediment types
	Environments
		Fjords
		Deltas on continental margins
		Submarine canyons
		Open continental slopes
		Oceanic volcanic islands
	Statistics of submarine landslides
	Concluding remarks
	References
17 Turbidites and turbidity currents
	Introduction
	A historical perspective
		Introduction
		The turbidite concept in the 1960s and 1970s: the pioneering works on the field and laboratory experiments
		The turbidite concept in the 1980s and early 1980s: the genetic facies tracts by Lowe (1982) and Mutti (1992)
		The main insights in the 1990s: Kneller’s model
	The latest insights on turbidite facies and processes
		Mud-rich transitional flows and slurried ‘hybrid’ facies
		Upper flow regimes structures and supercritical fans
	Modifications of the facies tract induced by the relationship between flow type and basin morphology
	Turbidite systems: relationship between degree of efficiency, degree of tectonic confinement and type of basin
	Some concluding remarks
	Acknowledgements
	References
18 Controls on reservoir distribution, architecture and stratigraphic trapping in slope settings
	Introduction
	Accommodation
		Ponded
		Healed slope
		Incised submarine valley
		Slope
	Delivery configuration
	Slope profile types
		Graded and out-of-grade profiles
			Bypass slopes
			Toes-of-slope
		Above-grade profile
			Ponded slopes
			Stepped slopes
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
19 Geological methods
	Introduction
	Satellite images and data
	Hotspots, rifts, reefs, deltas and cratonic regions – views from space
	Geological and tectonic maps
		Topography
		Surface geology
		Tectonic maps
	Integrated interpretation – the Appalachians
	Acknowledgements
	References
	Further reading
20 Regional tectonics and basin formation: the role of potential field studies – an application to the Mesozoic West and Ce...
	Introduction
	Gravity and magnetic coverage over continental areas
		Terrestrial gravity
		Terrestrial magnetics
	Satellite-derived gravity and magnetic coverage over oceanic areas
		Satellite gravity
		Satellite magnetics
	Offshore plate tectonic links to the West and Central Africa Rift System
	West and Central Africa Rift System
	Evolution of the West and Central Africa Rift System
		Stratigraphic unconformities and tectonics
		F1 rifting period
		F2 rifting period
		F3 rifting period
	Conclusion and implications
	References
	Further reading
21 Wide-angle refraction and reflection
	Introduction
	Wide-angle acquisition
		Seismic sources
		Receivers
	Modelling wide-angle data
		Travel-time analysis
		Amplitude modelling
	Examples of wide-angle seismic interpretations
		Oceanic crust
		Lithosphere stretching in the North Sea
		Volcanic continental margins
		Subbasalt imaging
	References
22 An introduction to seismic reflection data: acquisition, processing and interpretation
	Introduction
	The reflection seismic method
		Seismic resolution
	Acquisition of reflection seismic data
		Terrestrial surveys
		Marine surveys
		Three-dimensional surveys
		Broadband seismic
	Seismic processing
		Data preparation
			Demultiplexing
			Trace editing
		Data correction
			Amplitude corrections
			Noise attenuation
			Static corrections
			Velocity analysis (normal move-out and dip move-out)
			Migration
		Data reduction and enhancements
			Common midpoint stacking
			Multiple attenuation and deconvolution
			Filtering and scaling
	Seismic interpretation
		Advanced techniques
			Depth conversion
			Amplitude versus angle analysis
			Impedance inversion
			Forward modelling
			Spectral decomposition
			Semiautomated horizon picking
			Geographical information system
	Summary
	Acknowledgements
	Glossary of key terms
	References
23 Sequence stratigraphy
	Introduction
		Scope of sequence stratigraphy
		Development of sequence stratigraphy
		Stratigraphic resolution
	Controls on sequence development
		Accommodation versus sedimentation
			Accommodation
			Sedimentation
		Concept of ‘base level’
		Allogenic versus autogenic controls
	Sequence stratigraphic framework
		Depositional systems: definition and scales
		Systems tracts: definition and scales
		Systems tracts in downstream-controlled settings
			Falling-stage systems tract
			Lowstand systems tract
			Transgressive systems tract
			Highstand systems tract
		Systems tracts in upstream-controlled settings
			High-amalgamation systems tract
			Low-amalgamation systems tract
		Nomenclature of systems tracts
		Stratigraphic sequences: definition and scales
		Types of stratigraphic sequence
			Depositional sequence
			Genetic stratigraphic sequence
			Transgressive-regressive sequence
		Surfaces of sequence stratigraphy
			Subaerial unconformity
			Basal surface of forced regression
			Correlative conformity
			Maximum regressive surface
			Maximum flooding surface
			Transgressive surface of erosion
			Regressive surface of marine erosion
		Three-dimensional stratigraphic architecture
	Hierarchy in sequence stratigraphy
		Approaches to stratigraphic classification: absolute versus relative scales
		Hierarchy systems: approaches to nomenclature
		Hierarchy systems: orderly versus variable patterns
		Model-independent hierarchy: basin-specific stratigraphic frameworks
	Discussion
		Sequence stratigraphy in the context of the ‘modelling revolution’
		Workflow of sequence stratigraphy
		Standard methodology and nomenclature
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
24 Concepts of conventional petroleum systems
	Introduction
		Clarification of terminology
	The essential ingredients
		Trap
			Spill and leak points
		Reservoir
		Seal
		Hydrocarbon charge
	Play-based exploration workflow
		Basin evaluation
			Rift basins and passive margins
			Cenozoic deltas
			Deepwater foldbelts
			Deep-water passive margins
			Fold- and thrustbelts and foreland basins
		Play evaluation
		Prospect evaluation
	References
	Further reading
25 The accumulation of organic—matter–rich rocks within an earth system’s framework*
	Plate reconstructions
	Key aspects of individual plate reconstructions
		Cambrian (500Ma)
		Ordovician (450Ma)
		Late Devonian – Early Carboniferous (Frasnian – Famennian – Tournasian) (375Ma)
		Late Permian (250Ma)
		Late Jurassic (Callovian – Kimmeridgian) (154Ma)
		Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian – Turonian) (89Ma)
		Eocene (49Ma)
		Present day
	Proximate controls on accumulation of organic matter
	Source rock settings
	Application of concepts to predicting source accumulation
		Qualitative analysis of palaeoenvironmental maps for predicting source rock distribution
			Applications of the concepts to the Permian
				Late Permian
				Summary of organic matter–rich rock accumulation in the Late Permian
			Applications of the concepts to the Jurassic
				Late Jurassic
				Summary of organic matter–rich rock accumulation in the Late Jurassic
	Quantitative analysis of palaeoenvironmental maps for predicting source rock distribution
	Application of concepts to evaluating mudstone/shale reservoir character and distribution
	Conclusion
	References
26 Modelling fluid flow and petroleum systems in sedimentary basins
	Introduction
	Principles of fluid flow in sedimentary basins
		Fluid flow in porous media
		Generation and preservation of abnormal pressure
	Overpressure detection and modelling
		Measuring pressure
		Modelling pressure
	Hydrocarbon fluids and charge modelling
		Generation and expulsion of hydrocarbon fluids
		Migration and entrapment of petroleum fluids
		Evolution of properties of petroleum fluids
		Modelling migration
	Petroleum systems analysis
		Source rock presence and quality
		Timing of petroleum generation and migration
		Trap capacity and trap integrity
		Modelling the petroleum system
		Petroleum systems of unconventionals
	References
Global Maps
27 Tectonic and basin maps of the world
	Global geological maps: introduction
	Global geological cartography: selected milestones
	Stratigraphic nomenclature and the geological time scale
	References
	Introduction
	Global relief models: onshore and submarine morphology and plate tectonic regimes (Plates 27.1 and 27.2A and B)
	References
	Neotectonics: introduction
	Global earthquake distribution (Plates 27.3–27.6)
	Well-defined versus diffuse plate boundaries (Plates 27.7–27.10)
	Neotectonic plate motions: their relation to a fixed Eurasia and to Cenozoic/Mesozoic fold belts (Plate 27.11)
	References
	References
	Introduction
	The continental lithosphere (Plate 27.12)
	The continental crust (Plate 27.13)
	Crustal layers, rheological models, and conclusions
	References
	Plates for global topography, neotectonics, the continental lithosphere and crust: segments 27.1–27.3 and 27.5 (For online ...
	Introduction to tectonic maps
	Recent advances in alpine tectonics: an example of the scope of larger-scale tectonic maps
	Simplified tectonic maps of the world (Plates 27.14–27.16A and B)
	About Phanerozoic plate tectonic reconstructions
	References
	Arctic tectonic map (Plate 27.16A)
	Antarctic tectonic map (Plate 27.16B)
	References
	Orogeny versus epeirogeny
	Subduction, sutures, and orogens (Plates 27.17 and 27.18)
	Active margin fold and thrust belts
	Foreland fold and thrust belts
	Normal faulting in foreland fold and thrust belts
	References
	Introduction to basements, that is, the ‘residual’ peneplaned former fold belts
	Merging the global tectonic map with a Precambrian basement map
	References
	Introduction
	Large igneous provinces (LIPs) (Plate 27.24)
	Giant radiating dike swarms (maps b-6 and b-7)
	Is there a ‘canonical progression of tectonic themes’ preceding and/or following the emergence of a plume?
	The distribution of active volcanoes (Plate 27.26)
	References
	Introduction
	Subducted oceanic plateaus
	Allochthonous accreted oceanic plateaus and intraoceanic island arc terranes
	Allochthonous fragments, oceanic, and intraoceanic arc systems, and lower crust and uppermost mantle of hyperextended passi...
	Allochthonous, exhumed continental crust–mantle transitions and the Ivrea-Verbano Zone
	Conclusion
	References
	Plates for tectonics, orogenic systems, hot spots, large igneous provinces, volcanoes: segments 27.6–27.10 (for online vers...
	Introduction
	References
	References
	References
	References
	References
	References
	General reference
	Sedimentary basins and rifts: Segment 27.11 (for online version of the plates/figures cited in this chapter, the reader is ...
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