Rechargeable Ion Batteries: Materials, Design, and Applications of Li-Ion Cells and Beyond

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Rechargeable Ion Batteries: Materials, Design, and Applications of Li-Ion Cells and Beyond
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Contents
Preface
1. Introduction to Electrochemical Cells
	1.1 What are Batteries?
	1.2 Quantities Characterizing Batteries
		1.2.1 Voltage
		1.2.2 Electrode Kinetics (Polarization and Cell Impedance)
			1.2.2.1 Electrical Double Layer
			1.2.2.2 Rate of Reaction
			1.2.2.3 Electrodes Away from Equilibrium
			1.2.2.4 The Tafel Equation
			1.2.2.5 Example: Plotting a Tafel Curve for a Copper Electrode
			1.2.2.6 Other Limiting Factors
			1.2.2.7 Tafel Curves for a Battery
		1.2.3 Capacity
		1.2.4 Shelf Life
		1.2.5 Discharge Curve/Cycle Life
		1.2.6 Energy Density
		1.2.7 Specific Energy Density
		1.2.8 Power Density (Wh g−1)
		1.2.9 Service Life/Temperature Dependence
	1.3 Primary and Secondary Batteries
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
2. Primary Batteries
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Early Batteries
	2.3 The Zinc/Carbon Cell
		2.3.1 The Leclanché Cell
		2.3.2 The Gassner Cell
		2.3.3 Current Zinc/Carbon Cell
			2.3.3.1 Electrochemical Reactions
			2.3.3.2 Components
		2.3.4 Disadvantages
	2.4 Alkaline Batteries
		2.4.1 Electrochemical Reactions
		2.4.2 Components
		2.4.3 Disadvantages
	2.5 Button Batteries
		2.5.1 Mercury Oxide Battery
			2.5.1.1 Electrochemical Reactions
		2.5.2 Zn/Ag2O Battery
			2.5.2.1 Electrochemical Reactions
		2.5.3 Metal–Air Batteries
			2.5.3.1 Zn/Air Battery
			2.5.3.2 Aluminum/Air Batteries
	2.6 Li Primary Batteries
		2.6.1 Lithium/Thionyl Chloride Batteries
		2.6.2 Lithium/Sulfur Dioxide Cells
	2.7 Oxyride Batteries
	2.8 Damage in Primary Batteries
	2.9 Conclusions
	References
3. A Review of Materials and Chemistry for Secondary Batteries
	3.1 The Lead–Acid Battery (LAB)
		3.1.1 Electrochemical Reactions
		3.1.2 Components
		3.1.3 New Components
	3.2 The Nickel–Cadmium Battery
		3.2.1 Electrochemical Reactions
	3.3 Nickel–Metal Hydride (Ni–MH) Batteries
	3.4 Secondary Alkaline Batteries
		3.4.1 Components
	3.5 Secondary Lithium Batteries
		3.5.1 Lithium-Ion Batteries
		3.5.2 Li–Polymer Batteries
		3.5.3 Lithium/Air Batteries
		3.5.4 Evaluation of Li Battery Materials and Chemistry
	3.6 Battery Market
	3.7 Recycling and Safety Issues
		3.7.1 Recycling of Lead–Acid Batteries
		3.7.2 Details on the Recycling Process of Lead–Acid Batteries
	3.8 Conclusions
	References
4. Applications of Lithium Batteries
	4.1 Portable Electronic Devices
	4.2 Hybrid and Electric Vehicles
	4.3 Aerospace Applications
	4.4 Medical Applications
		4.4.1 Heart Pacemakers
		4.4.2 Neurological Pacemakers
	4.5 Grid Energy Storage
	4.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
5. Cathode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries
	5.1 Layered Materials
		5.1.1 LiCoO2
		5.1.2 Nickel-Rich Materials
		5.1.3 Excess Manganese Oxide Layered Cathode Materials
	5.2 Spinel Materials
	5.3 Polyanion (Phosphate, Silicates) Framework Cathode Materials
		5.3.1 LiMPO4 Olivine Crystal Structure and Intercalation Mechanism
		5.3.2 LMSiO4 Orthosilicate Crystal Structure and Intercalation Mechanism
		5.3.3 Factors to Improve Electrochemical Performance of LMXO4
	5.4 Conclusions
	References
6. Next-Generation Anodes for Secondary Li-Ion Batteries
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Mechanical Instabilities During Electrochemical Cycling
	6.3 Nanostructured Anodes
	6.4 Sn-Based Materials
		6.4.1 Sn-Based Conversion Reaction Materials
		6.4.2 Sn-Based Alloys
		6.4.3 Sn–C Nanocomposites
		6.4.4 Sn-Based Nanofiber/Nanowire Anodes
	6.5 Si-Based Materials
		6.5.1 Si-Films Anodes
		6.5.2 Si-Nanowire Anodes
		6.5.3 Si Microparticle Based Porous Electrodes
		6.5.4 Si/C Nanocomposites and other Si Nanoconfigurations
		6.5.5 Si/Polymer Nanocomposites
		6.5.6 Binders
		6.5.7 Si–SiO2–C Composites
	6.6 Other Anode Materials
		6.6.1 MXene Electrodes
		6.6.2 Sb-Based Anodes
		6.6.3 Al-Based Anodes
		6.6.4 Bi-Based Anodes
		6.6.5 LiTiO-Based Anodes
		6.6.6 Metal Oxide-Based Anodes
	6.7 Solid-State Batteries
	6.8 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
7. Electrolytes for Lithium Batteries: The Quest for Improving Lithium Battery Performance and Safety
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Nonaqueous Electrolytes
		7.2.1 The Solid-Electrolyte Interface (SEI)
		7.2.2 Current Collector Corrosion
		7.2.3 Solvents for Nonaqueous Electrolytes
		7.2.4 Salts for Nonaqueous Electrolytes
			7.2.4.1 Lithium Perchlorate (LiClO4)
			7.2.4.2 Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4)
			7.2.4.3 Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF6)
			7.2.4.4 Lithium Hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6)
			7.2.4.5 Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate (Li(CF3SO3))
			7.2.4.6 Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (Li[N(CF3SO2)2] or LiTFSI):
			7.2.4.7 Lithium Bis(perfluoroethylsulfonyl)imide (Li[NC(C2F5SO2)2] or LiBETI)
			7.2.4.8 Lithium Tris(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)methide (Li[C(CF3SO2)3] or LiTFSM)
			7.2.4.9 Lithium Tris(perfluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate (Li[PF3(CF3CF2)3] or LiFAP)
			7.2.4.10 Lithium Fluoroalkylborate (Li[BF3(CCF3CF2)] or LiFAB)
			7.2.4.11 Lithium Nonafluorobutylsulfonyltrifluoromethylsulfonylimide (Li[N(C4F9SO2)(CF3SO2)] or LiFBMSI): LiFBMSI:
			7.2.4.12 Lithium B(oxalato)borate (Li[B(C2O4)2] or LiBOB)
		7.2.5 Additives for Nonaqueous Electrolytes
			7.2.5.1 Reductive Additives
			7.2.5.2 Polymerizable Additives for Graphite-based Anode
			7.2.5.3 Reaction Additives for Graphite-based Anode
			7.2.5.4 Absorption Additives for Graphite-based Anode
			7.2.5.5 Surface Modifier Additives for Graphite-based Anode
			7.2.5.6 Protective Additives for Cathode
			7.2.5.7 LiPF6 Additives to Stabilize Salt Decomposition
			7.2.5.8 Shuttle Additives
			7.2.5.9 Shutdown Additives
			7.2.5.10 Fire-Retardant Additives
			7.2.5.11 Additives to Reduce Lithium Plating
			7.2.5.12 Additives to Increase the Transport Number
			7.2.5.13 Additives for Hindering Aluminum Current Collector Corrosion
			7.2.5.14 Additives to Improve theWetting of Separator
	7.3 Gel Polymer Electrolytes
		7.3.1 Gel Polymer Electrolyte Based on Copolymer PVDF–HFP
		7.3.2 Gel Polymer Electrolyte with Ionic Liquid
		7.4.2 Second-Generation Solid-State Batteries
	7.4 Solid-State Batteries
		7.4.1 First-Generation Solid-State Batteries
	7.5 Solid-Polymer Electrolytes
		7.5.1 The Advantage and the Query for the New Polymeric Materials for Polymer Electrolytes
		7.5.2 Polymer Composite Electrolytes
	7.6 Solid Electrolytes
		7.6.1 Solid-State Electrolyte Issues
		7.6.2 NASICON-Type Lithium Electrolytes
			7.6.2.1 NASICON-Type Lithium Electrolytes for Lithium–Air Batteries
			7.6.2.2 NASICON-Type Lithium Electrolytes for Lithium Aqueous
		7.6.3 Glass Electrolytes
		7.6.4 Glass–Ceramics Electrolyte
		7.6.5 LGPS Family
	7.7 Solid-State Battery Companies
	7.8 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
8. Developments in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
	8.1 Introduction to Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
	8.2 Electrochemical Principles
	8.3 Sulfur Utilization and Cycle Life
	8.4 Potential Solutions to Hurdles
	8.5 Carbon Materials
		8.5.1 Porous Carbon
		8.5.2 Graphene
		8.5.3 Carbon Nanotube
	8.6 Metal Oxides
	8.7 Polymers
	8.8 Further Developments and Innovative Approaches
	8.9 Key Parameters for Application Prospects
		8.9.1 Functionalized Cathode Materials
		8.9.2 Redox Conversion Catalysts
		8.9.3 Lithium Metal Anode
		8.9.4 Modified Separators
	8.10 Conclusions
	References
9. Sodium-Ion Batteries
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Cathode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries
		9.2.1 Transition-Metal Oxides
			9.2.1.1 O3 Phase Cathode Materials
			9.2.1.2 P2 Phase Cathode Materials
		9.2.2 Polyanionic Compounds
		9.2.3 Prussian Blue Compounds
	9.3 Anode Materials for Na-Ion Batteries
		9.3.1 Carbon-Based Anode Materials
		9.3.2 Alloying Anodes
			9.3.2.1 Huge Volume Expansion Causes Active Material Fracture
			9.3.2.2 Volume Expansion Causes Increase the Impedance
			9.3.2.3 Unstable SEI
	9.4 Electrolytes for Na-Ion Batteries
		9.4.1 Electrolyte Components
		9.4.2 Ester-Based Organic Electrolyte
		9.4.3 Ether-Based Organic Electrolyte
	9.5 Industrialization of SIBs
		9.5.1 Status of Industrialization of SIBs
		9.5.2 Challenges of the Industrialization of Sodium-Ion Batteries
	9.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
10. Modeling Ion Insertion for Predicting Next-Generation Electrodes
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 The Role of Mechanics in Batteries
		10.2.1 Initial Modeling of Damage Using Fracture Mechanics
	10.3 Accounting for Li-Ion Diffusion
		10.3.1 Modeling the Diffusion-Induced Stress in Single Particles
			10.3.1.1 Analytical Modeling of DISs Under Elastic Deformation
			10.3.1.2 Phase-Field Modeling of DISs
		10.3.2 Modeling Fracture in Single Particles
			10.3.2.1 Modeling of Damage by the Phase-Field Method
			10.3.2.2 Phase-Field Modeling for Capturing Stress Evolution and Fracture in Na-Ion Batteries
	10.4 Full Electrode Modeling
	10.5 MD Simulations for Li-Ion Batteries
		10.5.1 The Role of MD Simulations in LIBs
		10.5.2 MD Simulations of Lithiated Si Nanopillars
			10.5.2.1 Simulation Setup and Empirical Potential
			10.5.2.2 Lithiation Process
			10.5.2.3 New Structural Relaxation Approach
			10.5.2.4 Deformation and Stress Evolution During Lithiation
			10.5.2.5 Plastic Flow of Lithiated SiNPs
			10.5.2.6 Fracture Analysis of Si Nanopillars Due to Lithiation
	10.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
11. Future Ion-Battery Technologies
	11.1 Magnesium-Based Batteries
		11.1.1 Electrolytes of Mg Batteries
		11.1.2 Cathode Material
	11.2 Zinc-Based Batteries
		11.2.1 Dendrite Formation
		11.2.2 Hydrogen Evolution
	11.3 Dual-Ion Hybrid Batteries
	11.4 Conclusions
	References
Index