Recent Advances in the Study of Oceanic Whitecaps: Twixt Wind and Waves

Acknowledgements
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction
Part I: Whitecap Parameterizations
	Chapter 2: Parameterising Whitecap Coverage Using Sea Surface Imagery
		2.1 Preamble
		2.2 Introduction
		2.6.2 Atmospheric Stability
		2.3 Technological Advancement
		2.4 Fitting Practices
			2.4.1 Whitecap Functions
			2.4.2 Statistical Considerations
		2.5 Active and Maturing Whitecaps
		2.6 Effects of Environmental Parameters on Whitecaps
			2.6.1 Water Temperature
			2.6.3 Wave-Field Dependence
			2.6.4 Surfactant Dependence
		2.7 Discussion and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 3: Estimates of Wave Breaking Energy Dissipation Rate from Measurements of Whitecap Coverage
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 The Whitecap Energy Dissipation Model
		3.3 Results and Discussion
			3.3.1 The TLS and HP99 Datasets
			3.3.2 Variation in Swcap as a Function of u10
			3.3.3 Comparisons of Sin and Swcap
			3.3.4 Comparing of Swcap/Sin to Field Data
		3.4 Summary and Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: Inferences to Be Drawn from a Consideration of Power-Law Descriptions of Multiple Data Sets Each Comprised of White...
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Data Base for the Current Study
		4.3 The Apparent Variation of the Power-Law Exponent, n, with Changes in SST
		4.4 Statistical Methods
			4.4.1 Two-Stage Analysis
			4.4.2 Combined Analysis
			4.4.3 The Potential Dependence of n on the Absolute Latitude
		4.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 5: Rain, Wave Breaking and Spray
		5.1 A Picture of the Situation
		5.2 How Good Wave Models Are
		5.3 A Witnessed Event
		5.4 The Physical Implications
		5.5 How Rain Affects Hurricanes and Typhoons
		5.6 Rain and Spray
		5.7 What We Have Learnt
		References
	Chapter 6: Measurements of Airside Shear- and Wave-Induced Viscous Stresses over Strongly Forced Wind Waves
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Experimental Configurations
			6.2.1 Experimental Setup
		6.3 Coordinate Transformation and Triple Decomposition
		6.4 Results
			6.4.1 Governing Equations
			6.4.2 Mean Tangential Viscous Stress
			6.4.3 Wave-Induced Tangential Viscous Stress
		6.5 Conclusions
		References
Part II: Whitecaps and Gas Transfer
	Chapter 7: The Role of Physical Chemical Properties of Gases in Whitecap Facilitated Gas Transfer
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Chemical Properties
			7.2.1 Size and Geometry
			7.2.2 Polarity
			7.2.3 Solubility & Vapor Pressure
			7.2.4 Henry´s Law Constant
		7.3 The Altered Sea State
		7.4 NOAA COARE Model
		7.5 Field Data
		7.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Studying the Role of Gas Bubbles on Air-Sea Gas Transfer Using Computer Models
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Bubble Modelling
			8.2.1 Bubble Processes
			8.2.2 Construction of a Bubble Model
				8.2.2.1 Eulerian Model
				8.2.2.2 Lagrangian Bubble Model
				8.2.2.3 Coupling with Hydrodynamic Model and Dissolved Gas Model
		8.3 Studying Bubble-Mediated Gas Transfer Using a Computer Model
			8.3.1 The Study of Merlivat and Memery (Memery and Merlivat 1985) (Hereafter MM85)
			8.3.2 The Study of Woolf and Thorpe (1991) (Hearafter WT91)
			8.3.3 The Study of Liang et al. (2013) (Hearafter L13)
			8.3.4 The Study of Liang et al. (2017) (Hearafter L17)
		8.4 Outlook
		References
	Chapter 9: Sea Spray and Gas Transfer
		9.1 Introduction
			9.1.1 Sea Spray Generation Functions
			9.1.2 The Role of Sea Spray
		9.2 The Role of Sea Spray in the Transfer of Gases
			9.2.1 The AGES Model
		9.3 Application of AGES to the Atlantic Ocean
		9.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 10: What Controls Air-Sea Gas Exchange at Extreme Wind Speeds? Evidence from Laboratory Experiments
		10.1 Introduction: State-of-the-Art 1983
		10.2 Review of Field Experiments
		10.3 Laboratory Measurements at Extreme Wind Speeds
			10.3.1 Experimental Setup
			10.3.2 Fresh Water Results
			10.3.3 Air Phase Controlled Gas Transfer
			10.3.4 Sea Water Results
			10.3.5 DMS Gas Exchange
			10.3.6 Bubble Concentrations
		10.4 Conclusions and Outlook
		References
Part III: Whitecaps and Remote Sensing
	Chapter 11: Global Whitecap Coverage from Satellite Remote Sensing and Wave Modelling
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Whitecap Fraction
			11.2.1 Microwave Ocean Emissivity and Whitecaps
			11.2.2 Passive Remote Sensing of Whitecaps
			11.2.3 Implementations of the W(TB) Algorithm
			11.2.4 Satellite Whitecap Fraction
		11.3 Whitecap Fraction Inferred from Wave Models
			11.3.1 Breaking Waves, Energy Dissipation, and Whitecaps
			11.3.2 Whitecaps from Wave Models
			11.3.3 Modelled Whitecap Fraction
		11.4 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 12: The Case for Measuring Whitecaps Using Ocean Color and Initial Linkages to Subsurface Physics
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Methodology
			12.2.1 Field data
			12.2.2 Radiometric Quantities
			12.2.3 Radiometric Data Collection and Processing for Whitecap Metrics
			12.2.4 Wind and Wave Measurements and Estimated Enhancement in TKE Dissipation Rates
		12.3 Results
		12.4 Discussion
		12.5 Planned work
		References
	Chapter 13: Bright Oceans: Spectral Differentiation of Whitecaps, Sea Ice, Plastics, and Other Flotsam
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Whitecaps
		13.3 Ocean Plastics
		13.4 Differentiation from Other White Constituents
		References
Part IV: A Historical Perspective by E.C. Monahan
	Chapter 14: Twixt Wind and Waves: A First-Person Account of the Early Years of the Study of Oceanic Whitecaps
		14.1 Introduction
		14.2 Settling, Belatedly, on a Career Research Focus
		14.3 Photographing Fresh Water Whitecaps, and Making the Required Field Measurements of Wind Speed and Other Variables
		14.4 The Manual Analysis of Our Whitecap Photographs
		14.5 Fresh Water Whitecap Results
		14.6 The First Published Descriptions of the Wind Dependence of Whitecap Coverage
		14.7 Our Initial Oceanic Whitecap Observations
		14.8 In Search of Capaill Bhna, the White Horses of Ireland
		14.9 Whitecap Coverage and Satellite Remote Sensing
		14.10 Further Thoughts on the Analysis of Whitecap Photographs
		14.11 In the Shade of the Butterfly Grove
		14.12 1983: An Active Year on Several Whitecap Fronts
		14.13 Leaving the Arctic Circle far to the South
		14.14 Striving for a Consistent Nomenclature to Describe Whitecaps and Bubble Plumes
		14.15 On to the North Sea
		14.16 Nomenclature Revisited
		14.17 Some Final Thoughts on the ``Great λ Controversy´´
		14.18 A ``Review´´ to Close out the ``Early Years´´ of Research on Whitecapping
		14.19 Some Closing Thoughts
		References