Reaching for the Sun: How Plants Work, 2nd Edition

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
\nPreface to the Second Edition......Page 9
\nPreface to the First Edition......Page 11
Part I  Plants and energy......Page 15
Other green organisms can also photosynthesize......Page 17
Fuel and heat......Page 18
Organic compounds......Page 19
Back to photosynthesis......Page 20
Enter Jan Baptista Van Helmont......Page 21
Farewell to “the four elements”: alchemy and Joseph Priestley......Page 22
Light and air finally linked......Page 23
Van Helmont not so wrong after all......Page 24
Plant pigments......Page 25
Making sugars, starch, and cellulose......Page 26
Interior design......Page 28
The light guide effect......Page 29
Stomata, carbon dioxide, and C3 photosynthesis......Page 30
Extreme adaptation to heat and drought......Page 31
Summary......Page 32
Plants need respiration as well as photosynthesis......Page 34
A quarter century of progress......Page 35
Progress stalled......Page 36
Why is respiration so complex?......Page 37
Glucose and aerobic respiration......Page 38
ATP: the universal energy carrier......Page 39
Cyanide-resistant respiration......Page 41
In energy overflow......Page 42
Other uses of the respiratory chain......Page 43
Protein respiration......Page 44
Sensitivity of plants to oxygen supply......Page 45
In grasses and sedges......Page 46
Summary......Page 47
Bibliography: Part I......Page 48
Part II  Plant nutrition......Page 51
Convective versus evaporative loss of heat......Page 53
The size and reach of root systems......Page 54
Movement of water in the plant......Page 55
Plant structure and water movement......Page 56
Osmosis and cell membranes......Page 57
Aquaporins......Page 58
Eduard Strasburger’s massive experiment......Page 59
Cohesion and the tensile strength of water......Page 60
What creates the sucking force?......Page 61
The dilemma of gaseous exchange......Page 62
Plant breathing pores: stomata......Page 63
Guard cell control......Page 64
The role of abscisic acid in plant water conservation......Page 66
Summary......Page 67
Essential mineral elements......Page 68
Ancient views of nutrition......Page 69
Challenges to Van Helmont – John Woodward......Page 70
Carl Sprengel......Page 71
John Bennett Lawes, Joseph Henry Gilbert, and Rothamsted......Page 72
Which mineral elements are essential?......Page 73
The ash elements......Page 74
Deficiency symptoms......Page 75
Deficiencies in younger tissues: example – calcium......Page 76
Mining and recycling of minerals by plants......Page 77
Dependence on soil acidity......Page 78
Summary......Page 79
The atmosphere......Page 82
Protein turnover and renewal......Page 83
The essential amino acids......Page 84
Pulse crops......Page 85
Plants and the quest for nitrogen......Page 86
Soil nitrogen – mineralization and nitrate......Page 87
Nitrate as a hazard......Page 88
Nitrogen fixation......Page 89
Jean-Baptiste Boussingault......Page 90
Free-living N-fixing bacteria......Page 91
Nodular N-fixing bacteria: the rhizobia......Page 92
Root nodules – form and function......Page 93
Leghemoglobin......Page 94
Nitrogen fixation and the photosynthesis connection......Page 95
Nitrogen recycling......Page 96
The enigma of nitrogen fixation......Page 97
Summary......Page 98
… At different times......Page 99
Discovery of circulatory systems – translocation......Page 100
Marcello Malpighi......Page 101
Questions about sieve tubes......Page 102
Sieve tubes are delicate......Page 103
Rate of phloem transport......Page 105
Allocation and partitioning of photosynthate......Page 106
Sucrose versus starch......Page 107
Phloem loading and unloading......Page 108
Summary......Page 109
Bibliography: Part II......Page 110
Part III  Growth and development......Page 113
Genetic control......Page 115
Plant growth substances......Page 116
Charles and Francis Darwin –  phototropism and gravitropism......Page 117
Fritz Went......Page 118
Definition of a plant hormone......Page 119
Fruiting......Page 120
Plant growth substances are not like animal hormones......Page 121
Eiichi Kurosawa......Page 122
Other gibberellin effects......Page 123
Cytokinin: the “wound hormone”......Page 124
The ‘climacteric’ in fruits......Page 125
In plant defense......Page 126
Abscisic acid – the brake pedal......Page 127
Search for an inhibitor......Page 128
Roles of abscisic acid......Page 129
Summary......Page 131
Sleep movements......Page 132
The  biological clock......Page 133
Erwin Buenning, Kurt Stern, Rose Stoppel, and  factor X......Page 134
Red and far-red light......Page 135
Free-running rhythms and entrainment......Page 136
The light–dark Zeitgeber......Page 137
Environmental factors not useful as Zeitgebers......Page 138
Multiple cycles......Page 139
Nature of the clock(s)......Page 140
Seasonal rhythms......Page 142
Summary......Page 143
Away from the tropics......Page 144
Julien Tournois: day and night length......Page 145
Wightman W. Garner and Harry A. Allard: Maryland Mammoth tobacco......Page 146
Examples of responses......Page 147
Synchronized flowering......Page 148
How plants “see” light......Page 149
Effect on long-day plants......Page 150
Small seeds and light......Page 151
…On lettuce seed germination......Page 152
Harry Borthwick and Sterling Hendricks......Page 153
Red light, far-red light, and etiolation......Page 154
Natural conditions......Page 155
The negative influence of phytochrome......Page 156
Light and plant development......Page 157
Summary......Page 160
Winter buds......Page 161
Genetic diversity through the seed......Page 162
The viability of seeds......Page 163
True dormancy in plants......Page 164
Seed dormancy spreads out germination......Page 165
Seed coat dormancy......Page 166
… by other organisms......Page 167
… light and dark......Page 168
… low temperature exposure of some whole plants and plant organs......Page 169
Chemical inhibitors......Page 170
Summary......Page 171
Signaling......Page 175
Yellow and orange colors: carotenoids......Page 177
Flower color: why more variable than leaves?......Page 178
White flowers: UV light reflectors......Page 179
Flower color and habitat......Page 180
Other color variations......Page 181
Fritz Muller......Page 182
Visible guides......Page 183
Darwin was partially correct......Page 184
Importance of ripeness of fruits......Page 186
Birds, color, and seed dispersal......Page 187
… and complex......Page 188
Terpenes: one prominent group of essential oils......Page 189
A “putrid” example: Jack-in-the-pulpit......Page 190
Sex attractants......Page 191
Summary......Page 192
BibliographY: Part III......Page 193
Part IV  Stress, defense, and decline......Page 197
In a cultivated context......Page 199
Some stresses plants face......Page 200
Water deficit escapers......Page 201
High temperature stress......Page 202
Salinity: a most difficult stress......Page 203
Stress from environmental pollutants......Page 204
Heavy metals and remediation......Page 205
Stress tolerance......Page 206
Opening and closing of stomata......Page 208
Limits on photosynthesis......Page 209
Changes in gene expression under osmotic stress......Page 210
C4 photosynthesis......Page 211
Acclimation to high temperature – heat shock proteins......Page 212
Freezing injury......Page 213
Acclimation to low temperature......Page 214
Frost-hardiness acclimation: stage two......Page 215
Summary......Page 216
Physical defenses......Page 218
Chemical defenses......Page 219
Chemical cornucopia......Page 220
Toxicity is relative......Page 222
 Terpenes......Page 223
Phenolics......Page 224
Nitrogen-containing compounds......Page 225
Static defense......Page 226
Mixture of deterrents......Page 227
Time and energy control of predators......Page 228
Elicitors......Page 229
Alarm agents......Page 230
The classic milkweed/Monarch/Blue Jay case......Page 231
Defense against pathogens......Page 232
Antimicrobial chemicals......Page 233
Phytoalexins......Page 234
The ultimate battle......Page 235
Composition of plant communities......Page 236
Alexander Fleming – penicillin......Page 237
Black walnut tree......Page 238
Wormwood......Page 239
Establishing Lebensraum......Page 240
Competition......Page 241
Summary......Page 242
Cloning......Page 243
Life history strategies of plants......Page 244
The value of annuals......Page 245
‘Big bang’ strategy – typical of biennials and some perennials......Page 246
Larger perennials and polycarpics......Page 247
Senescence: the program of death......Page 248
Controls by competition for resources …......Page 249
Clues from leaf senescence......Page 250
Genetic controls......Page 251
Growth substance involvement......Page 252
Importance of senescence......Page 253
Bibliography: Part IV......Page 254
Part V  Plants and the environment......Page 257
Introduction......Page 259
Biogeochemical cycling......Page 260
Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky and the concept of the biosphere......Page 261
Vital role of elemental replenishment in the biosphere......Page 263
Water cycling......Page 264
Rapid cycling through photosynthesis......Page 265
Charles Cagniard-Latour and Theodor Schwann......Page 266
Long-term carbon cycling......Page 267
Oxygen cycling and cyanobacteria......Page 268
Why oxygen accumulated......Page 269
… Accelerated by human activity......Page 270
Scarcity of nitrogen in the atmosphere and biosphere......Page 271
The dominance of bacteria in nitrogen cycling......Page 272
Alternative ways plants have to recycle nitrogen......Page 273
Short cycling in the soil......Page 274
Dimethylsulfide......Page 275
Summary......Page 276
The impact of human activities on the atmosphere......Page 277
Carbon dioxide and radiative forcing......Page 278
International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)......Page 279
Changes causing cooling......Page 282
Plants and climate change......Page 283
Indirect effect......Page 284
The lesson learned......Page 285
Effect on stomatal aperture, transpiration, and run-off......Page 286
Effect on stomatal density......Page 287
Long-term effects on water cycling......Page 288
Influence of ozone on plants......Page 289
Historical influence of humans on nitrogen availability......Page 290
Ocean pollution......Page 291
Nitrogen pollution: aquatic and terrestrial habitats......Page 292
Effect in the tropics versus the Arctic......Page 293
How rapidly is warming occurring?......Page 294
C4 plants......Page 295
The consequences......Page 296
Summary......Page 297
Bibliography: Part V......Page 300
Appendix......Page 298
Epilogue......Page 305
Index......Page 307