Radiation protection: A guide for scientists, regulators and physicians

Preface......Page 7
Contents......Page 13
1 / In the Beginning......Page 25
2 / The Discovery of Invisible, Unbelievably Energetic Radiations......Page 27
4 / The Need for Radiation Protection......Page 31
1 / Radiation’s Dual Identity......Page 33
2 / Energy Relationships in the Hydrogen Atom......Page 35
3 / Energy Levels in Atoms with Higher Z......Page 37
5 / Energies of Motion Associated with Temperature......Page 38
6 / Bonding Energies......Page 39
7 / Energy from Mass—The Ultimate Energy Source......Page 40
8 / Some Interesting Energy Values......Page 41
1 / The Approach......Page 42
2 / Energy and Injury......Page 43
4 / Energy Transfer by Charged Particles......Page 44
5 / The Stopping Power Equation......Page 46
6 / Beta Particles—A Major Class of Charged Ionizing Particles......Page 47
8 / Gamma Rays—A Major Class of Uncharged Ionizing Particles......Page 57
9 / Heavy Charged Ionizing Particles......Page 75
10 / The Neutron—A Second Important Uncharged Ionizing Particle......Page 78
11 / The Absorbed Dose—A Measure of Energy Imparted to a Medium......Page 84
12 / The Equivalent Dose—A Common Scale for Doses to Organs and Tissues from Different Radiation Types and Energies......Page 87
13 / Tissue Weighting Factors and the Effective Dose—A Measure of Risk and Severity of Consequences......Page 91
14 / The Roentgen—The Traditional Unit for Expressing Radiation Exposure......Page 95
15 / The Significance of External Radiation Levels......Page 96
16 / Exposure from Internal Radiation Sources......Page 101
17 / The Annual Limit on Intake—The Basic Quantity for the Control of Internal Exposures......Page 104
18 / Limit for the Concentration of a Radionuclide in Air—A Derived Limit......Page 105
19 / Levels of Radioactivity inside the Body—A Useful Benchmark for Internal Exposure......Page 106
20 / Protection from Radioactive Contamination......Page 108
21 / Some Simple Calculations in Radiation Protection......Page 109
22 / X Rays—Radiation Made by Machine......Page 118
23 / Dose Measurements in Diagnostic Radiology......Page 148
24 / Exposure Guides and Reference Levels in Diagnostic Radiology......Page 151
25 / Protection of the Patient in X-Ray Diagnosis......Page 153
26 / Radiation Levels in the Working Areas around X-Ray Machines......Page 159
28 / Exposure of the Embryo, Fetus, or Nursing Child......Page 166
29 / Protection of the Patient in Radiation Therapy......Page 167
30 / Misadministrations in the Medical Use of Radiation and Radioactive Material......Page 170
31 / Occupational Exposures Incurred in the Medical Use of Radiation......Page 171
32 / Comments for Users of X-Ray Diffraction Machines......Page 176
33 / Particle Accelerators—The Universal Radiation Source......Page 179
34 / Regulation of Radiation Sources and Uses......Page 188
III / Radiation Dose Calculations......Page 191
1 / Dose from Beta-Emitting Radionuclides inside the Body......Page 192
2 / A Closer Look at the Dose from Beta Particles......Page 199
3 / Calculation of the Absorbed Dose from Gamma Emitters in the Body......Page 202
4 / Summary of Formulas......Page 213
5 / Dose Calculations for Speci.c Radionuclides......Page 215
6 / Dose Rates from Small, Highly Radioactive Particles......Page 248
7 / The Radioactive Patient as a Source of Exposure......Page 253
8 / Radiation Doses in Nuclear Medicine......Page 255
9 / Evaluation of Doses within the Body from X Rays......Page 260
10 / Survey Results, Handbooks, and the Internet......Page 269
11 / Producing an Optimum Radiation Field for Treating a Tumor......Page 270
1 / Radiation Counting with a Geiger- Mueller Counter......Page 274
2 / Energy Measurements with a Scintillation Detector......Page 287
3 / Detectors for Special Counting Problems......Page 303
4 / Measuring Radiation Dose Rates......Page 307
5 / Measuring Accumulated Doses over Extended Periods—Personnel and Environmental Monitoring......Page 320
6 / Specifying Statistical Variations in Counting Results......Page 326
7 / Comments on Making Accurate Measurements......Page 344
V / Practical Aspects of the Use of Radionuclides......Page 346
1 / Obtaining Authorization to Use Radionuclides......Page 347
2 / Training Required for Working with Radionuclides......Page 356
3 / Responsibilities of Radionuclide Users......Page 360
4 / Standards for Protection against Radiation......Page 361
5 / Personnel Monitoring for External Radiation Exposure......Page 362
6 / Monitoring Personnel Subject to Intakes of Radioactive Material......Page 363
7 / NRC and ICRP Values for Annual Limits on Intake and Airborne Radioactivity Concentration Limits......Page 366
8 / Posting of Areas......Page 373
9 / Laboratory Facilities......Page 374
10 / Protective Clothing......Page 377
12 / Special Handling Precautions for Radioiodine......Page 378
15 / Delivery of Radionuclides......Page 381
16 / Storage and Control of Radionuclides......Page 382
18 / Waste Disposal......Page 383
19 / Use of Radioactive Materials in Animals......Page 396
20 / Transportation of Radionuclides......Page 397
21 / Contamination Control......Page 404
23 / Leak Tests of Sealed Sources......Page 407
25 / Termination of Work with Radionuclides......Page 409
Appendix A / Emergency Instructions in the Event of Release of Radioactivity and Contamination of Personnel......Page 410
Appendix B / The Regulatory Process......Page 412
Appendix C / Control of Airborne Releases to the Environment......Page 420
1 / Formulation of Standards for Radiation Protection......Page 429
2 / Medical Findings on Humans Exposed to Radiation......Page 441
3 / Risks to Health from Exposure to Alpha Radiation......Page 466
4 / Implications for Humans from Results of Animal Experiments......Page 475
5 / Sources Producing Population Exposure......Page 477
6 / Population Exposure from Radiation Accidents......Page 507
7 / Nuclear Weapons—Ready for Armageddon......Page 528
VII / Exposure to Nonionizing Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 536
1 / Electromagnetic Fields—Quantities, Units, and Maxwell’s Equations......Page 537
2 / Interaction of Fields from Electric Power Lines with the Body......Page 542
3 / The Physics of Radiating Electromagnetic Fields......Page 544
4 / Absorption of Electromagnetic Radiation in the Body......Page 548
5 / Specifying Dose to Tissue from Electromagnetic Fields......Page 550
6 / Devices That Produce Electromagnetic Fields......Page 552
7 / Making Measurements of ELF and Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields......Page 559
8 / Standards for Protection against Electromagnetic Fields......Page 560
9 / Medical Findings on Humans......Page 568
10 / Effects on Animals—Basic Research......Page 579
11 / Exposures from Environmental Fields......Page 580
12 / Effects of Electromagnetic Interference on Pacemakers......Page 584
13 / Exposures to Patients and Staff from Medical Devices......Page 585
14 / Occupational Exposure to Electromagnetic Radiation......Page 586
15 / Beyond Microwaves......Page 587
1 / On Electromagnetic Fields......Page 590
2 / On Defining and Regulating the Hazards of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation......Page 592
3 / On Reducing Population Radiation Exposure from Medical and Dental X Rays......Page 594
4 / On the Safety of Nuclear Power......Page 597
5 / On the Hazards of Nuclear Weapons Tests and Underground Explosions......Page 600
6 / On the Consequences to Civilization of an All-Out Thermonuclear War......Page 602
7 / A Personal Statement......Page 604
Appendix I / Problems......Page 607
Answers to Problems......Page 612
Appendix II / Data on Selected Radionuclides......Page 614
Appendix III / Some Constants, Conversion Factors, and Anatomical and Physiological Data......Page 618
Selected Bibliography......Page 621
References......Page 625
Index......Page 673