Radar Handbook

obalka.pdf......Page 1
Front Matter......Page 2
Contributors......Page 4
Preface......Page 5
About the Editor in Chief......Page 9
Table of Contents......Page 0
Table of Contents......Page 10
1.1 Description of Radar......Page 38
Radar Block Diagram......Page 39
1.2 Radar Equation......Page 43
Volume Search......Page 45
Jamming......Page 46
1.3 Information Available from the Radar Echo......Page 47
Radial Velocity......Page 48
Shape......Page 49
1.4 Radar Frequencies......Page 50
VHF (30 to 300 MHz)......Page 52
S Band (2.0 to 4.0 GHz)......Page 53
Millimeter Wavelengths (above 40 GHz)......Page 54
1.5 Radar Nomenclature......Page 55
Definitions......Page 59
Range Prediction Philosophy......Page 60
Historical Notes......Page 61
Radar Transmission Equation......Page 62
Maximum-Range Equation......Page 63
Detectability Factor......Page 64
Automatic Detection......Page 66
Equations in Practical Units......Page 67
Transmitter Power and Pulse Length......Page 68
Antenna Gain, Efficiency, and Loss Factor......Page 69
Target Cross Section......Page 70
Wavelength (Frequency)......Page 71
Bandwidth and Matching Factors......Page 72
2.4 Minimum Detectable Signal-to-Noise Ratio......Page 74
Number of Pulses Integrated......Page 75
Evaluation of Probabilities......Page 76
Detector Laws......Page 81
Curves for Visual Detection......Page 82
Predetection Integration......Page 83
Available Power, Gain, and Loss......Page 84
The Referral Concept......Page 85
Antenna Noise Temperature......Page 86
Transmission-Line Noise Temperature......Page 88
3.1 The Configuration of a Radar Receiver......Page 90
3.2 Noise and Dynamic-Range Considerations......Page 92
Definitions......Page 93
Important Characteristics......Page 94
Spurious Distortion of Radiated Spectrum......Page 96
Spurious Responses of Mixers......Page 97
Functions of the Local Oscillator......Page 100
Stalo Instability......Page 101
Total Radar Instability......Page 105
Sensitivity Time Control (STC)......Page 106
Clutter Map Automatic Gain Control......Page 107
Filtering of the Entire Radar System......Page 108
Definitions......Page 109
Approximations to Matched Filters......Page 110
Filtering Problems Associated with Mixer Spurious Responses......Page 111
Characteristics......Page 114
Analog Logarithmic Devices......Page 116
Digital Logarithm......Page 117
Digital Log Power Combiner......Page 118
The Transmitter as Part of a Pulsed Radar System......Page 120
Why So Much Power?......Page 121
Why Pulsed?......Page 122
Limitations......Page 124
Magnetron Features......Page 125
Common Problems......Page 126
Oscillator versus Amplifier......Page 128
Amplifier Chains: Special Considerations......Page 129
Crossed-Field Amplifiers (CFAs)......Page 131
Klystrons......Page 133
Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWTs)......Page 134
RF Tube Selection......Page 136
RF Tube Power Capabilities......Page 140
5.1 Introduction......Page 141
5.2 Solid-State Microwave Power Generation......Page 144
Microwave Bipolar Power Transistors......Page 145
Microwave Field-Effect Transistors (FETs)......Page 149
Millimeter-Wave Solid-State Power Sources......Page 151
5.3 Solid-State Microwave Design......Page 152
High-Power Amplifier Design......Page 153
Microwave Monolithic Integrated Circuits......Page 156
Transceiver Module Performance Characteristics......Page 158
Performance Sensitivities......Page 161
Solid-State Transmitter Design Examples......Page 163
Beam Scanning and Target Tracking......Page 174
Reciprocity......Page 175
Gain, Directivity, and Effective Aperture......Page 176
Radiation Patterns......Page 178
6.3 Types of Antennas......Page 183
Paraboloidal Reflector Antennas......Page 185
Parabolic-Cylinder Antenna......Page 188
Shaped Reflectors......Page 190
Multiple Beams and Extended Feeds......Page 192
Monopulse Feeds......Page 194
Multiple-Reflector Antennas......Page 196
6.4 Feeds......Page 199
6.5 Reflector Antenna Analysis......Page 200
Phased Array Radars......Page 204
Scanning of Arrays......Page 210
7.2 Array Theory......Page 213
Planar Arrays......Page 220
Element-Phasing Calculations......Page 224
Significance of Aperture Matching......Page 225
Effects of Mutual Coupling......Page 226
Element Pattern......Page 228
Thinned Arrays......Page 229
Element Impedance......Page 230
Analytical Techniques......Page 232
Nonisolating Feeds......Page 233
Mutual Coupling and Surface Waves......Page 234
Array Simulators......Page 235
Small Arrays......Page 238
8.2 Automatic Detection......Page 240
Optimal Detector......Page 241
Practical Detectors......Page 242
False-Alarm Control......Page 251
Target Resolution......Page 260
9.1 Introduction......Page 263
9.3 Electronic Warfare Support Measures......Page 264
9.4 Electronic Countermeasures......Page 266
9.6 Antenna-Related ECCM......Page 269
Sidelobe-Blanking (SLB) System......Page 271
Sidelobe Canceler (SLC) System......Page 273
Adaptive Arrays......Page 276
9.7 Transmitter-Related ECCM......Page 278
10.1 Introduction......Page 281
10.2 Factors Affecting Choice of Pulse Compression System......Page 283
10.4 Nonlinear FM......Page 284
10.5 Pulse Compression Devices......Page 286
Digital Pulse Compression......Page 287
Surface-Wave Pulse Compression......Page 290
Other Passive Linear-FM Devices......Page 292
10.6 Phase-Coded Waveforms......Page 295
Optimal Binary Sequences......Page 297
Maximal-Length Sequences......Page 299
Complementary Sequences......Page 301
Implementation of Biphase-Coded Systems......Page 302
Doppler Correction......Page 304
Polyphase Codes......Page 305
10.7 Time-Frequency-Coded Waveforms......Page 306
Paired Echoes and Weighting......Page 307
Comparison of Weighting Functions......Page 309
Taylor Weighting with Linear FM......Page 311
Amplitude and Phase Distortion......Page 314
Equalization......Page 316
11.1 Introduction......Page 320
Definition of RCS......Page 321
Examples of RCS Characteristics......Page 323
11.3 RCS Prediction Techniques......Page 337
Exact Methods......Page 339
Approximate Methods......Page 343
12.1 Introduction......Page 354
Available Scattering Information......Page 356
12.2 Parameters Affecting Ground Return......Page 357
Descriptions of a Surface......Page 359
Simplified Models......Page 360
Physical Optics Models......Page 362
Small-Perturbation and Two-Scale Models......Page 363
12.4 Fading of Ground Echoes......Page 365
Fading-Rate Computations......Page 366
Effect of Detection......Page 369
CW and FM-CW Systems......Page 371
Range-Measuring Systems......Page 374
CW-Doppler Scatterometers......Page 375
Near-Vertical Problem......Page 376
Ground and Helicopter Scatterometers and Spectrometers......Page 377
12.6 General Models for Scattering Coefficient (Clutter Models)......Page 381
13.1 Introduction......Page 389
13.2 Description of the Sea Surface......Page 390
The Wave Spectrum......Page 391
General Sea Descriptors......Page 393
13.3 Empirical Behavior of Sea Clutter......Page 394
Dependence on Wind Speed, Grazing Angle, and Frequency......Page 396
The Spectrum of Sea Clutter......Page 409
Other Effects on Sea Clutter......Page 411
14.1 Introduction and Advantages of CW......Page 416
Spectral Spreading......Page 417
Noise from Clutter......Page 418
Scanning and Target Properties......Page 422
Active Stabilization......Page 423
14.5 Noise Measurement Technique......Page 426
Generation of the Local-Oscillator Signal......Page 430
Subcarriers......Page 431
Doppler Trackers......Page 433
14.7 Minimization of Feedthrough......Page 434
CW Proximity Fuzes......Page 435
14.9 FM Radar......Page 436
15.1 Introduction to MTI Radar......Page 439
Moving-Target Indicator (MTI) Block Diagram......Page 441
Moving-Target Detector (MTD) Block Diagram......Page 443
15.2 Clutter Filter Response to Moving Targets......Page 445
Spectral Characteristics......Page 446
Amplitude Characteristics......Page 448
Signal-to-Clutter Ratio Improvement (ISCR)......Page 449
Interclutter Visibility (ICV)......Page 451
15.5 Improvement Factor Calculations......Page 452
15.6 Optimum Design of Clutter Filters......Page 454
15.7 MTI Clutter Filter Design......Page 461
Empirical Filter Design......Page 467
Chebyshev Filter Bank......Page 469
16.1 Systems Using Airborne MTI Techniques......Page 473
16.3 Platform Motion and Altitude Effects on MTI Performance......Page 474
Effect of Slant Range on Doppler Effect......Page 476
TACCAR......Page 477
Platform-Motion Effect......Page 479
Physically Displaced Phase-Center Antenna......Page 480
Electronically Displaced Phase-Center Antenna......Page 482
Power in the Antenna Sidelobes......Page 485
16.5 Scanning-Motion Compensation......Page 486
Compensation-Pattern Selection......Page 488
16.6 Simultaneous Platform Motion and Scan Compensation......Page 489
16.7 Platform-Motion Compensation, Forward Direction......Page 492
16.8 Space-Time Adaptive Motion Compensation......Page 495
Performance Capability of Space-Time Adaptive Arrays......Page 498
16.9 Limitation of Improvement Factor Due to Pulse Envelope Shift......Page 500
16.11 Detection of Ground Moving Targets......Page 501
PRFs......Page 504
Pulse Doppler Spectrum......Page 505
Ambiguities and PRF Selection......Page 508
Basic Configuration......Page 510
Ground Clutter in a Moving Radar......Page 512
Clutter Return: General Equations......Page 513
Sidelobe Discretes......Page 514
Main-Beam Clutter Filtering......Page 519
Altitude-Line Clutter Filtering......Page 521
17.4 Range-Ambiguity Resolution......Page 522
High-PRF Ranging......Page 523
Single-Target Tracking......Page 528
Dynamic Range......Page 529
Stability Requirements......Page 531
Sinusoidal Modulations......Page 532
System Losses......Page 536
Probability of False Alarm......Page 538
Probability of Detection......Page 539
18.1 Introduction......Page 546
18.2 Scanning and Lobing......Page 548
18.3 Monopulse (Simultaneous Lobing)......Page 553
Amplitude-Comparison Monopulse......Page 554
Phase-Comparison Monopulse......Page 562
One- and Two-Channel Monopulse......Page 564
Conopulse......Page 566
18.4 Servosystems for Tracking Radar......Page 567
19.1 Introduction......Page 571
Doppler Frequency Relationships......Page 573
Clutter and Feedthrough Considerations......Page 576
Guidance Fundamentals......Page 577
19.3 System Evolution......Page 579
Unambiguous (Offset Video) Receiver......Page 580
Inverse Receiver......Page 582
Angle Tracking: Conical Scan to Monopulse......Page 584
Active Seekers......Page 585
Passive Seekers......Page 587
Other System Considerations......Page 590
Early Radar Techniques for Height Finding......Page 592
Height Finding Techniques in 3D Radars......Page 597
Spherical Earth: Exact Geometry......Page 605
Corrections for Atmospheric Refraction......Page 606
20.3 Height Accuracy Performance Limitations......Page 610
Fundamental Accuracy of Sequential Lobing......Page 611
Fundamental Accuracy of Simultaneous Lobing......Page 616
Elevation Error Due to Surface Reflections......Page 624
Low-Angle Squinted-Beam Height Finding......Page 626
21.1 Basic Principles and Early History......Page 632
Conventional Technique......Page 635
The Unfocused Synthetic Aperture......Page 636
The Focused Case......Page 637
21.3 Radar System Preliminaries......Page 638
Detailed Resolution Analysis......Page 639
Signal-to-Noise-Ratio Considerations......Page 646
Signal Processing......Page 648
Antenna......Page 649
Storage and Recording......Page 650
Squint Mode......Page 651
Three-Dimensional Spectrum......Page 652
Types of SBR......Page 655
Considerations......Page 659
STS Rendezvous Radar......Page 668
GEOS-C SBR System Characteristics......Page 669
22.4 Technology......Page 671
Antennas......Page 672
Transmit/Receive Modules......Page 677
Prime Power......Page 678
Rendezvous Radar Missions......Page 680
Remote-Sensing Missions......Page 683
Global Air Traffic Surveillance......Page 684
Military SBR Systems......Page 685
23.1 Introduction......Page 688
23.2 The Radar Range Equation for Meteorological Targets......Page 689
Attenuation Effects......Page 692
Range and Velocity Ambiguities......Page 697
Ground Clutter Effects......Page 698
Typical Weather Radar Designs......Page 699
23.4 Signal Processing......Page 700
Measurement Accuracy......Page 702
23.5 Operational Applications......Page 704
Precipitation Measurement......Page 705
Severe Storm Warning......Page 706
Multiple-Parameter, Radar......Page 710
Multiple Radars......Page 711
Rapid Scanning......Page 712
Airborne and Space-Borne Radars......Page 713
Clear-Air Radars......Page 714
Synthetic Aperture Radar and Pulse Compression......Page 715
24.1 Introduction......Page 721
24.2 Radar Equation......Page 723
24.3 Transmitters......Page 724
24.4 Antennas......Page 725
24.5 Clutter: The Echo from the Earth......Page 726
24.6 Radar Cross Section......Page 730
24.7 Noise and Interference......Page 732
24.8 Spectrum Use......Page 734
24.9 Sky-Wave Transmission Medium......Page 735
24.10 Sky-Wave Radar Performance......Page 742
24.11 Receiver-Processor......Page 756
24.12 Ground-Wave Radar Performance......Page 758
25.1 Concept and Definitions......Page 764
25.2 History......Page 765
25.3 Coordinate System......Page 768
Ovals of Cassini......Page 769
Operating Regions......Page 770
Isorange Contours......Page 771
Location......Page 772
Coverage......Page 773
Clutter Cell Area......Page 775
Target Doppler......Page 776
25.7 Target Cross Section......Page 777
Pseudo-Monostatic RCS Region......Page 778
Forward-Scatter RCS Region......Page 780
25.8 Clutter......Page 781
In-Plane Land Clutter Scattering Coefficient......Page 784
Pulse Chasing......Page 787
Beam Scan on Scan......Page 789
Time Synchronization......Page 790
Phase Synchronization and Stability......Page 791
A......Page 799
B......Page 804
C......Page 806
D......Page 810
E......Page 812
F......Page 813
G......Page 814
H......Page 815
I......Page 817
L......Page 818
M......Page 820
N......Page 824
O......Page 825
P......Page 826
R......Page 832
S......Page 836
T......Page 843
V......Page 846
W......Page 847