Psychology: Themes and Variations

Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 26
1 The Evolution of Psychology......Page 45
A New Science Is Born......Page 47
The Battle of the “Schools” Begins: Structuralism Versus Functionalism......Page 48
Freud Brings the Unconscious into the Picture......Page 50
Watson Alters Psychology’s Course as Behaviorism Makes Its Debut......Page 52
Skinner Questions Free Will as Behaviorism Flourishes......Page 53
The Humanists Revolt......Page 54
Psychology Returns to Its Roots: Renewed Interest in Cognition and Physiology......Page 56
Psychology Broadens Its Horizons: Increased Interest in Cultural Diversity......Page 57
Psychology Adapts: The Emergence of Evolutionary Psychology......Page 58
Psychology Moves in a Positive Direction......Page 59
Psychology Today: Vigorous and Diversified......Page 60
Research Areas in Psychology......Page 61
Professional Specialties in Psychology......Page 62
Illustrated Overview of Psychology’s History......Page 63
Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study......Page 66
Themes Related to Psychology’s Subject Matter......Page 67
PERSONAL APPLICATION: Improving Academic Performance......Page 70
Improving Your Reading......Page 71
Getting More out of Lectures......Page 72
Improving Test-Taking Strategies......Page 73
An Example......Page 75
Recap......Page 77
Practice Test......Page 78
2 The Research Enterprise in Psychology......Page 79
Steps in a Scientific Investigation......Page 81
Looking for Causes: Experimental Research......Page 85
Experimental and Control Groups......Page 86
Variations in Designing Experiments......Page 87
Advantages and Disadvantages of Experimental Research......Page 88
The Concept of Correlation......Page 89
Naturalistic Observation......Page 91
Case Studies......Page 93
Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research......Page 94
Illustrated Overview of Key Research Methods......Page 95
Looking for Flaws: Evaluating Research......Page 97
Placebo Effects......Page 98
Experimenter Bias......Page 99
Looking Into the Future: The Internet and Psychological Research......Page 100
Looking at Ethics: Do the Ends Justify the Means?......Page 101
The Question of Animal Research......Page 102
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 104
The Nature of Technical Journals......Page 105
Finding Journal Articles......Page 106
Reading Journal Articles......Page 107
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION: The Perils of Anecdotal Evidence: “I Have A Friend Who . . . “......Page 109
Recap......Page 111
Practice Test......Page 112
3 The Biological Bases of Behavior......Page 113
Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware......Page 114
The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information......Page 116
The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet......Page 117
Neurotransmitters and Behavior......Page 119
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 123
Looking Inside the Brain: Research Methods......Page 125
The Hindbrain......Page 127
The Midbrain......Page 128
The Forebrain......Page 129
The Plasticity of the Brain......Page 132
Right Brain/Left Brain: Cerebral Specialization......Page 133
Bisecting the Brain: Split-Brain Research......Page 134
Hemispheric Specialization in the Intact Brain......Page 135
The Endocrine System: Another Way to Communicate......Page 137
Basic Principles of Genetics......Page 138
Detecting Hereditary Influence: Research Methods......Page 139
The Interplay of Heredity and Environment......Page 140
Darwin’s Insights......Page 141
Subsequent Refinements to Evolutionary Theory......Page 142
Behaviors as Adaptive Traits......Page 143
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 144
Complexities and Qualifications......Page 145
The Tendency to Overextrapolate......Page 147
Recap......Page 149
Practice Test......Page 150
4 Sensation and Perception......Page 151
The Stimulus: Light......Page 153
The Eye: A Living Optical Instrument......Page 154
The Retina: The Brain’s Envoy in the Eye......Page 155
Vision and the Brain......Page 157
Viewing the World in Color......Page 161
Perceiving Forms, Patterns, and Objects......Page 164
Perceiving Depth or Distance......Page 170
The Power of Misleading Cues: Visual Illusions......Page 172
Human Hearing Capacities......Page 175
Sensory Processing in the Ear......Page 176
Auditory Perception: Theories of Hearing......Page 177
Taste: The Gustatory System......Page 179
Smell: The Olfactory System......Page 180
Touch: Sensory Systems in the Skin......Page 181
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 184
Illustrated Overview of Five Major Senses......Page 185
PERSONAL APPLICATION: Appreciating Art and Illusion......Page 187
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION: Recognizing Contrast Effects: It’s All Relative......Page 191
Recap......Page 193
Practice Test......Page 194
5 Variations in Consciousness......Page 195
On the Nature of Consciousness......Page 196
Consciousness and Brain Activity......Page 197
The Role of Circadian Rhythms......Page 198
Realigning Circadian Rhythms......Page 199
The Sleep and Waking Cycle......Page 200
Cycling Through the Stages of Sleep......Page 201
Age, Culture, and Sleep......Page 203
Doing Without: Sleep Deprivation......Page 205
Problems in the Night: Sleep Disorders......Page 207
The World of Dreams......Page 209
The Contents of Dreams......Page 210
Theories of Dreaming......Page 211
Hypnotic Induction and Phenomena......Page 213
Theories of Hypnosis......Page 214
Meditation: Pure Consciousness or Relaxation?......Page 216
Principal Abused Drugs and Their Effects......Page 217
Factors Influencing Drug Effects......Page 219
Mechanisms of Drug Action......Page 220
Drugs and Health......Page 221
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 223
Common Questions About Sleep......Page 224
Common Questions About Dreams......Page 225
The Power to Make Definitions......Page 227
Definitions, Labels, and Circular Reasoning......Page 228
Recap......Page 229
Practice Test......Page 230
6 Learning......Page 231
Pavlov’s Demonstration: “Psychic Reflexes”......Page 233
Terminology and Procedures......Page 234
Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life......Page 235
Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning......Page 237
Terminology and Procedures......Page 241
Basic Processes in Operant Conditioning......Page 243
Reinforcement: Consequences That Strengthen Responses......Page 245
Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 246
Positive Reinforcement Versus Negative Reinforcement......Page 248
Punishment: Consequences That Weaken Responses......Page 249
Recognizing Biological Constraints on Conditioning......Page 252
Recognizing Cognitive Processes in Conditioning......Page 254
Observational Learning......Page 256
Observational Learning and the Media Violence Controversy......Page 257
Illustrated Overview of Three Types of Learning......Page 259
Specifying Your Target Behavior......Page 262
Designing Your Program......Page 263
Executing and Evaluating Your Program......Page 264
Classical Conditioning in Advertising......Page 265
Classical Conditioning in the World of Politics......Page 266
Recap......Page 267
Practice Test......Page 268
7 Human Memory......Page 269
The Role of Attention......Page 271
Levels of Processing......Page 272
Enriching Encoding......Page 273
Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory......Page 274
Short-Term Memory......Page 275
Long-Term Memory......Page 277
How Is Knowledge Represented and Organized in Memory?......Page 278
Using Cues to Aid Retrieval......Page 280
Source Monitoring......Page 281
Forgetting: When Memory Lapses......Page 282
Measures of Forgetting......Page 283
Why We Forget......Page 284
The Repressed Memories Controversy......Page 286
In Search of the Memory Trace: The Physiology of Memory......Page 289
The Anatomy of Memory......Page 290
The Neural Circuitry of Memory......Page 291
Semantic Versus Episodic Memory......Page 292
Prospective Versus Retrospective Memory......Page 293
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 294
Engage in Adequate Rehearsal......Page 295
Schedule Distributed Practice and Minimize Interference......Page 296
Enrich Encoding with Mnemonic Devices......Page 297
The Contribution of Hindsight Bias......Page 299
The Contribution of Overconfidence......Page 300
Recap......Page 301
Practice Test......Page 302
8 Cognition and Intelligence......Page 303
Barriers to Effective Problem Solving......Page 305
Approaches to Problem Solving......Page 308
Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving......Page 311
Decision Making: Choices and Chances......Page 312
Making Choices About Preferences......Page 313
Heuristics in Judging Probabilities......Page 314
Ignoring Base Rates and the Conjunction Fallacy......Page 315
The Gambler’s Fallacy and Overestimates of the Improbable......Page 316
Evolutionary Analyses of Flaws in Human Decision Making......Page 317
Fast and Frugal Heuristics......Page 318
A Brief History......Page 319
What Kinds of Questions Are on Intelligence Tests?......Page 320
What Do Modern IQ Scores Mean?......Page 321
Do Intelligence Tests Have Adequate Validity?......Page 323
Do Intelligence Tests Predict Vocational Success?......Page 324
Are IQ Tests Widely Used in Other Cultures?......Page 325
Evidence for Hereditary Influence......Page 326
Evidence for Environmental Influence......Page 328
The Interaction of Heredity and Environment......Page 329
Cultural Differences in IQ Scores......Page 330
Exploring Biological Indexes of Intelligence......Page 332
Investigating Cognitive Processes in Intelligent Behavior......Page 333
Expanding the Concept of Intelligence......Page 334
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 336
Measuring Creativity......Page 337
Correlates of Creativity......Page 338
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION: The Intelligence Debate, Appeals to Ignorance, and Reification......Page 339
Recap......Page 341
Practice Test......Page 342
9 Motivation and Emotion......Page 343
Drive Theories......Page 345
The Range and Diversity of Human Motives......Page 346
Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger......Page 347
Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger......Page 349
The Human Sexual Response......Page 352
Evolutionary Analyses of Human Sexual Motivation......Page 353
The Mystery of Sexual Orientation......Page 356
Individual Differences in the Need for Achievement......Page 360
Situational Determinants of Achievement Behavior......Page 361
The Cognitive Component: Subjective Feelings......Page 362
The Physiological Component: Diffuse and Multifaceted......Page 363
Culture and the Elements of Emotion......Page 366
James-Lange Theory......Page 368
Evolutionary Theories of Emotion......Page 369
How Happy Are People?......Page 371
Moderately Good Predictors of Happiness......Page 372
Strong Predictors of Happiness......Page 373
Conclusions About Subjective Well-Being......Page 374
The Anatomy of an Argument......Page 375
Evaluating the Strength of Arguments......Page 376
Recap......Page 377
Practice Test......Page 378
10 Human Development Across the Life Span......Page 379
The Course of Prenatal Development......Page 381
Environmental Factors and Prenatal Development......Page 382
Exploring the World: Motor Development......Page 384
Early Emotional Development: Attachment......Page 386
Learning to Communicate: Language Development......Page 388
Becoming Unique: Personality Development......Page 389
The Growth of Thought: Cognitive Development......Page 391
The Development of Moral Reasoning......Page 395
Physiological Changes......Page 398
Neural Development......Page 400
Emerging Adulthood as a New Developmental Stage......Page 401
Personality Development......Page 403
Transitions in Family Life......Page 404
Aging and Physiological Changes......Page 405
Aging and Neural Changes......Page 406
Illustrated Overview of Human Development......Page 407
Aging and Cognitive Changes......Page 411
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 412
How Do the Sexes Differ in Behavior?......Page 413
Biological Origins of Gender Differences......Page 414
Environmental Origins of Gender Differences......Page 415
Conclusion......Page 416
Evaluating the Argument......Page 417
Recap......Page 419
Practice Test......Page 420
11 Personality: Theory, Research, and Assessment......Page 421
Personality Traits: Dispositions and Dimensions......Page 423
The Five-Factor Model of Personality Traits......Page 424
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 425
Jung’s Analytical Psychology......Page 430
Adler’s Individual Psychology......Page 431
Evaluating Psychodynamic Perspectives......Page 432
Skinner’s Ideas Applied to Personality......Page 433
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory......Page 435
Evaluating Behavioral Perspectives......Page 436
Rogers’s Person-Centered Theory......Page 437
Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization......Page 438
Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives......Page 440
Eysenck’s Theory......Page 441
Behavioral Genetics and Personality......Page 442
Evaluating Biological Perspectives......Page 443
Essentials of Terror Management Theory......Page 444
Illustrated Overview of Major Theories of Personality......Page 445
Applications of Terror Management Theory......Page 447
Culture and Personality......Page 448
PERSONAL APPLICATION: Understanding Personality Assessment......Page 451
Self-Report Inventories......Page 452
Projective Tests......Page 453
Personality Testing on the Internet......Page 454
Hindsight and Personality......Page 455
Other Implications of “20-20 Hindsight”......Page 456
Recap......Page 457
Practice Test......Page 458
12 Stress, Coping, and Health......Page 459
Major Types of Stress......Page 461
Emotional Responses......Page 465
Physiological Responses......Page 467
Behavioral Responses......Page 468
Personality, Hostility, and Heart Disease......Page 472
Stress, Other Diseases, and Immune Functioning......Page 473
Sizing Up the Link Between Stress and Illness......Page 474
Factors Moderating the Impact of Stress......Page 475
Positive Effects of Stress......Page 476
Smoking......Page 477
Poor Nutritional Habits......Page 478
Behavior and HIV/AIDS......Page 479
Adhering to Medical Advice......Page 481
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 483
Reappraisal: Ellis’s Rational Thinking......Page 484
Releasing Pent-Up Emotions and Forgiving Others......Page 485
Learning to Relax......Page 486
Minimizing Physiological Vulnerability......Page 487
Evaluating Statistics on Health Risks......Page 489
Thinking Systematically About Health Decisions......Page 490
Recap......Page 491
Practice Test......Page 492
13 Psychological Disorders......Page 493
The Medical Model Applied to Abnormal Behavior......Page 494
Criteria of Abnormal Behavior......Page 495
Psychodiagnosis: The Classification of Disorders......Page 496
Phobic Disorder......Page 498
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder......Page 499
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 500
Etiology of Anxiety Disorders......Page 501
Hypochondriasis......Page 503
Etiology of Somatoform Disorders......Page 504
Dissociative Identity Disorder......Page 505
Mood Disorders......Page 506
Major Depressive Disorder......Page 507
Bipolar Disorder......Page 508
Etiology of Mood Disorders......Page 509
General Symptoms......Page 512
Subtypes and Course......Page 513
Etiology of Schizophrenia......Page 514
Culture and Pathology......Page 518
Illustrated Overview of Three Categories of Psychological Disorders......Page 519
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 521
Description......Page 522
History and Prevalence......Page 523
Etiology of Eating Disorders......Page 524
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION: Working with Probabilities in Thinking About Mental Illness......Page 525
Recap......Page 527
Practice Test......Page 528
14 Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 529
Clients: Who Seeks Therapy?......Page 531
Therapists: Who Provides Professional Treatment?......Page 532
Psychoanalysis......Page 533
Client-Centered Therapy......Page 535
Group Therapy......Page 537
How Effective Are Insight Therapies?......Page 538
Behavior Therapies......Page 539
Systematic Desensitization......Page 540
Social Skills Training......Page 541
How Effective Are Behavior Therapies?......Page 542
Treatment with Drugs......Page 543
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)......Page 547
New Brain Stimulation Techniques......Page 548
Illustrated Overview of Five Major Approaches to Treatment......Page 549
Grappling with the Constraints of Managed Care......Page 551
Increasing Multicultural Sensitivity in Treatment......Page 552
Disenchantment with Mental Hospitals......Page 553
Mental Illness, the Revolving Door, and Homelessness......Page 554
PERSONAL APPLICATION: Looking for a Therapist......Page 556
Is the Therapist’s Profession or Sex Important?......Page 557
What Is Therapy Like?......Page 558
CRITICAL THINKING APPLICATION: From Crisis to Wellness—But Was It the Therapy?......Page 559
Recap......Page 561
Practice Test......Page 562
15 Social Behavior......Page 563
Effects of Physical Appearance......Page 565
Subjectivity in Person Perception......Page 566
Attribution Processes: Explaining Behavior......Page 567
Bias in Attribution......Page 568
Culture and Attributions......Page 570
Key Factors in Attraction......Page 572
Perspectives on the Mystery of Love......Page 573
Culture and Close Relationships......Page 575
The Internet and Close Relationships......Page 576
An Evolutionary Perspective on Attraction......Page 577
Components and Dimensions of Attitudes......Page 578
Trying to Change Attitudes: Factors in Persuasion......Page 579
Theories of Attitude Formation and Change......Page 580
Conformity......Page 584
Obedience......Page 585
The Power of the Situation: The Stanford Prison Simulation......Page 587
Group Productivity and Social Loafing......Page 589
Decision Making in Groups......Page 590
Reflecting on the Chapter’s Themes......Page 592
PERSONAL APPLICATION: Understanding Prejudice......Page 593
Stereotyping and Subjectivity in Person Perception......Page 594
Competition Between Groups......Page 595
Threats to Social Identity......Page 596
Recognizing Social Influence Strategies......Page 597
Recap......Page 599
Practice Test......Page 600
Appendix A: Answers to Concept Checks......Page 601
Appendix B: Statistical Methods......Page 607
Appendix C: Careers and Areas in Psychology......Page 615
Appendix D: Psychology and Environmental Sustainability: Conservation Psychology......Page 624
Glossary......Page 641
References......Page 649
Credits......Page 713
Name Index......Page 719
Subject Index......Page 733