Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior

Title
Contents
1 The Science of Psychology
	THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY
		Psychology’s Scientifi c Approach
		Thinking Critically about Behavior
		Goals of Psychology
		Myth or Reality? When Taking Tests, Stick with Your First Instinct
		Basic and Applied Research
		Psychology’s Broad Scope: A Simple Framework
	PERSPECTIVES ON BEHAVIOR
		Psychology’s Intellectual Roots
		Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism
		The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within
		The Behavioral Perspective: The Power of the Environment
		Thinking Critically Are the Students Lazy?
		The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology
		The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human
		The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human
		The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution
		Research Close-up Would You Marry Someone You Didn’t Love?
	USING LEVELS OF ANALYSIS TO INTEGRATE THE PERSPECTIVES
		An Example: Understanding Depression
		Summary of Major Themes
		Levels of Analysis Causal Factors in Depression
	PSYCHOLOGY TODAY
		A Global Science and Profession
		Psychology, Society, and Your Life
		Applying Psychological Science How to Enhance Your Academic Performance
2 Studying Behavior Scientifically
	SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHOLOGY
		Scientifi c Attitudes
		Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientifi c Process
		Two Approaches to Understanding Behavior
		Defi ning and Measuring Variables
		Levels of Analysis Measuring Exam Stress
	ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH
		Ethical Standards in Human Research
		Ethical Standards in Animal Research
	METHODS OF RESEARCH
		Descriptive Research: Recording Events
		Thinking Critically Should You Trust Internet and Pop Media Surveys?
		Correlational Research: Measuring Associations between Events
		Research Close-up Very Happy People
		Thinking Critically Does Eating Ice Cream Cause People to Drown?
		Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect
	THREATS TO THE VALIDITY OF RESEARCH
		Confounding of Variables
		Placebo Effects
		Experimenter Expectancy Effects
		Replicating and Generalizing the Findings
		Myth or Reality? ESP Exists
	ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA
		Being a Smart Consumer of Statistics
		Using Statistics to Describe Data
		Using Statistics to Make Inferences
		Meta-analysis: Combining the Results of Many Studies
	CRITICAL THINKING IN SCIENCE AND EVERYDAY LIFE
		Applying Psychological Science Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life
3 Genes, Environment, and Behavior
	GENETIC INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR
		Chromosomes and Genes
		Applying Psychological Science Gene Manipulations and Therapies
		Behavior Genetics
	ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT: THE ROLE OF LEARNING
		How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms
		Why Do We Learn? The Search for Functions
		Learning and Evolution
	BEHAVIOR GENETICS, INTELLIGENCE, AND PERSONALITY
		Genes, Environment, and Intelligence
		Personality Development
	GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
		How the Environment Can Infl uence Gene Expression
		How Genes Can Infl uence the Environment
	EVOLUTION, CULTURE, AND BEHAVIOR
		Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms
		Thinking Critically Natural Selection and Genetic Diseases
		Evolution and Human Nature
		Research Close-up Sex Differences in the Ideal Mate: Evolution or Social Roles?
		Levels of Analysis Gene-Environment Research
		Myth or Reality? Human Behavior Refl ects Nature’s Plan
4 The Brain and Behavior
	NEURONS
		The Electrical Activity of Neurons
	HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE: SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
		Neurotransmitters
		Specialized Neurotransmitter Systems
		Applying Psychological Science Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain
	THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
		The Peripheral Nervous System
		The Central Nervous System
	THE HIERARCHICAL BRAIN: STRUCTURES AND BEHAVIORAL FUNCTIONS
		The Hindbrain
		The Midbrain
		The Forebrain
	HEMISPHERIC LATERALIZATION: THE LEFT AND RIGHT BRAINS
		Are There Sex Differences in Lateralization of Language?
		Research Close-up Splitting the Brain: One Body, Two Minds?
		Thinking Critically Do the Sexes Differ?
	PLASTICITY IN THE BRAIN: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE AND THE RECOVERY OF FUNCTION
		How Experience Infl uences Brain Development
		Healing the Nervous System
		Myth or Reality? We Use Only Ten Percent of Our Brain Power
	INTERACTIONS WITH THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
		Levels of Analysis Brain, Behavior, and Environment
5 Sensation and Perception
	SENSORY PROCESSES
		Stimulus Detection: The Absolute Threshold
		The Difference Threshold
		Myth or Reality? Subliminal Stimuli Can Program Our Minds
		Sensory Adaptation
	VISION
		The Human Eye
		Photoreceptors: The Rods and Cones
		Visual Transduction: From Light Waves to Nerve Impulses
		Brightness Vision and Dark Adaptation
		Color Vision
		Analysis and Reconstruction of Visual Scenes
	AUDITION
		Auditory Transduction: From Pressure Waves to Nerve Impulses
		Coding of Pitch and Loudness
		Sound Localization
		Thinking Critically Navigating in Fog: Professor Mayer’s Topophone
		Hearing Loss
	TASTE AND SMELL: THE CHEMICAL SENSES
		Gustation: The Sense of Taste
		Olfaction: The Sense of Smell
	THE SKIN AND BODY SENSES
		The Tactile Senses
		The Body Senses
		Applying Psychological Science Sensory Prosthetics: Restoring Lost Functions
	PERCEPTION: THE CREATION OF EXPERIENCE
		Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention
		Perceptions Have Organization and Structure
		Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing
		Perception Is Infl uenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets
		Stimuli Are Recognizable under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies
		Thinking Critically Why Does That Rising Moon Look So Big?
	PERCEPTION OF DEPTH, DISTANCE, AND MOVEMENT
		Depth and Distance Perception
		Perception of Movement
	ILLUSIONS: FALSE PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES
		Thinking Critically Explain This Striking Illusion
		Research Close-up Stalking a Deadly Illusion
	EXPERIENCE, CRITICAL PERIODS, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT
		Cross-Cultural Research on Perception
		Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience
		Restored Sensory Capacity
		Levels of Analysis Sensation and Perception
6 States of Consciousness
	THE PUZZLE OF CONSCIOUSNESS
		Characteristics of Consciousness
		Measuring States of Consciousness
		Levels of Consciousness
		Unconscious Perception and Infl uence
		Why Do We Have Consciousness?
		The Neural Basis of Consciousness
	CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS: OUR DAILY BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS
		Keeping Time: Brain and Environment
		Thinking Critically Early Birds, Climate, and Culture
		Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms
		Applying Psychological Science Outsmarting Jet Lag, Night-Work Disruptions, and Winter Depression
	SLEEP AND DREAMING
		Stages of Sleep
		Getting a Night’s Sleep: From Brain to Culture
		How Much Do We Sleep?
		Sleep Deprivation
		Why Do We Sleep?
		Sleep Disorders
		The Nature of Dreams
		Levels of Analysis Sleep and Dreaming
	DRUG-INDUCED STATES
		Drugs and the Brain
		Drug Tolerance and Dependence
		Depressants
		Research Close-up Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States
		Stimulants
		Opiates
		Hallucinogens
		Marijuana
		From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects
		Levels of Analysis Drug-Induced States
	HYPNOSIS
		The Scientifi c Study of Hypnosis
		Hypnotic Behaviors and Experiences
		Thinking Critically Hypnosis and Amazing Feats
		Myth or Reality? Hypnosis Uncovers Eyewitnesses’ Hidden Memories
		Theories of Hypnosis
		The Hypnotized Brain
7 Learning: The Role of Experience
	ADAPTING TO THE ENVIRONMENT
	CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: ASSOCIATING ONE STIMULUS WITH ANOTHER
		Pavlov’s Pioneering Research
		Basic Principles
		Thinking Critically Why Did Carol’s Car Phobia Persist?
		Applications of Classical Conditioning
		Thinking Critically Was the “Little Albert” Study Ethical?
	OPERANT CONDITIONING: LEARNING THROUGH CONSEQUENCES
		Thorndike’s Law of Effect
		Skinner’s Analysis of Operant Conditioning
		Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond
		Consequences: Determining How to Respond
		Myth or Reality? Spanking Is a Necessary Evil
		Thinking Critically Can You Explain the “Supermarket Tantrum”?
		Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time
		Generalization and Discrimination
		Schedules of Reinforcement
		Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
		Applications of Operant Conditioning
		Applying Psychological Science Using Operant Principles to Modify Your Behavior
	CROSSROADS OF CONDITIONING
		Biological Constraints: Evolution and Preparedness
		Cognition and Conditioning
	OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING: WHEN OTHERS SHOW THE WAY
		Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
		Applications of Observational Learning
		Research Close-up Using Social-Cognitive Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment
	THE ADAPTIVE BRAIN
		Levels of Analysis Learning
8 Memory
	MEMORY AS INFORMATION PROCESSING
		A Three-Stage Model
	ENCODING: ENTERING INFORMATION
		Effortful and Automatic Processing
		Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better
		Exposure and Rehearsal
		Organization and Imagery
		How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding
		Encoding and Exceptional Memory
		Thinking Critically Would Perfect Memory Be a Gift or a Curse?
	STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION
		Memory as a Network
		Types of Long-Term Memory
	RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION
		The Value of Multiple Cues
		The Value of Distinctiveness
		Arousal, Emotion, and Memory
		Myth or Reality? If You Can Confi dently Recall Something, That Memory Is Accurate
		The Effects of Context, State, and Mood on Memory
	FORGETTING
		The Course of Forgetting
		Why Do We Forget?
		Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory
		Amnesia
	MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS
		Memory Distortion and Schemas
		Research Close-up Memory Illusions: Remembering Things That Never Occurred
		Misinformation Effects and Eyewitness Testimony
		The Child as Eyewitness
		The Recovered-Memory Controversy
		Culture and Memory Construction
	MEMORY AND THE BRAIN
		Where Are Memories Formed and Stored?
		How Are Memories Formed?
		Levels of Analysis Memory
		Applying Psychological Science Improving Memory and Academic Learning
9 Language and Thinking
	LANGUAGE
		Adaptive Functions of Language
		Properties of Language
		The Structure of Language
		Thinking Critically Discerning the Deep Structure of Language
		Understanding and Producing Language
		Thinking Critically The Sleeping Policeman
		Acquiring a First Language
		Bilingualism
		Reading
		Myth or Reality? Dyslexia Is a “Reading Backwards” Disorder
		Can Other Animals Acquire Human Language?
		Language, Culture, and Thinking
		Levels of Analysis Language
	THINKING
		Thought, Brain, and Mind
		Concepts and Propositions
		Reasoning
		Problem Solving and Decision Making
		Applying Psychological Science Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving
		Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom
		Metacognition: Knowing Your Own Cognitive Abilities
		Research Close-up “Why Did I Get That Wrong?” Improving College Students’ Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material
		Mental Imagery
		Levels of Analysis Thinking Processes
10 Intelligence
	INTELLIGENCE IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
		Sir Francis Galton: Quantifying Mental Ability
		Alfred Binet’s Mental Tests
		Binet’s Legacy: An Intelligence-Testing Industry Emerges
	THE NATURE OF INTELLIGENCE
		The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect
		Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent Thinking
		Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies
	THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE
		Increasing the Informational Yield from Intelligence Tests
		Should We Test for Aptitude or Achievement?
		Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests
		Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures
		Myth or Reality? Brains Are Like Engines: Bigger Means More Power
	HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE
		Applying Psychological Science Early-Childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence?
	GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE
		Ethnic Group Differences
		Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities
		Beliefs, Expectations, and Cognitive Performance
		Research Close-up Sex Hormones, Gender Stereotypes, and Cognitive Performance
	EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE
		The Intellectually Gifted
11 Motivation and Emotion
	Thinking Critically Are Gifted Children Maladjusted?
	Mental Retardation
	Levels of Analysis Intellectual Functioning
12 Development over the Life Span
	MAJOR ISSUES AND METHODS
	PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
		Genetics and Sex Determination
		Environmental Infl uences
	INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
		The Amazing Newborn
		Physical Development
		Cognitive Development
		Social-Emotional and Personality Development
		Thinking Critically Shy Child, Shy Adult?
		Applying Psychological Science Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children
		Moral Development
	ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD
		Physical Development
		Cognitive Development
		Myth or Reality? The Aging Brain Is Like a Muscle: Use It or Lose It
		Social-Emotional Development
		Research Close-up What Does It Take to Become an Adult?
		Thinking Critically Cohabitation as a “Trial Marriage”
		Levels of Analysis Life Span Development
13 Personality
	WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
	THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
		Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
		Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches
		Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach
		Research Close-up Attachment Style and Abusive Romantic Relationships
	THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL-HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
		George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory
		Carl Rogers’s Theory of the Self
		Thinking Critically Is Self-Actualization a Useful Scientifi c Construct?
		Research on the Self
		Evaluating the Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach
	THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE: MAPPING THE STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
		Factor Analytic Approaches
		Evaluating the Trait Approach
	BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY
		Genetics and Personality
		Personality and the Nervous System
		Evaluating the Biological Approach
	THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
		Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control
		Albert Bandura: Social Learning and Self-Effi cacy
		Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda: The Cognitive-Affective Personality System
		Reconciling Personality Coherence with Behavioral Inconsistency
		Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories
		Applying Psychological Science Understanding Charles Whitman: What Can the Personality Perspectives Tell Us?
	CULTURE, GENDER, AND PERSONALITY
		Culture Differences
		Gender Schemas
		Levels of Analysis Conceptions of Personality
	PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT
		Interviews
		Behavioral Assessment
		Remote Behavior Sampling
		Personality Scales
		Projective Tests
		Myth or Reality? Criminal Profi ling Is a Useful Investigative Tool
14 Health and Well-Being
	BEHAVIORAL FOUNDATIONS OF HEALTH
		Health-Enhancing Behaviors
		Health-Threatening Behaviors
		Myth or Reality? College Binge Drinking Is Harmless Fun
		How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model
		Maintaining Positive Change: Relapse Prevention
	STRESS AND WELL-BEING
		Stressors
		The Stress Response: A Mind-Body Link
		Effects of Stress on Well-Being
		Thinking Critically Do Stressful Events Cause Psychological Distress?
	RESILIENCE: FACING DOWN ADVERSITY
		Social Support
		Coping Self-Effi cacy and Perceived Control
		Optimism and Positive Attitudes
		Trauma Disclosure and Emotional Expressiveness
		Finding Meaning in Stressful Life Events
		Coping Strategies
		Beyond Resilience: Posttraumatic Growth
		Research Close-up Stress Resilience, Coping, and Illness
		Levels of Analysis Stress and Resilience
	PAIN AND ILLNESS
		Cultural and Psychological Infl uences on Pain
		Controlling Pain and Suffering
		Lifestyle Changes and Medical Recovery
	HAPPINESS
		How Happy Are People?
		What Makes People Happy?
		Applying Psychological Science How to Be Happy: Guidelines from Psychological Research
15 Psychological Disorders
	THE SCOPE AND NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
		What Is “Abnormal”?
	HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANT BEHAVIOR
		Thinking Critically “Do I Have That Disorder?”
	ANXIETY DISORDERS
		Phobic Disorder
		Generalized Anxiety Disorder
		Panic Disorder
		Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
		Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
		Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders
	SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS: ANXIETY INFERRED
		Somatoform Disorders
		Dissociative Disorders
	MOOD DISORDERS: DEPRESSION AND MANIA
		Depression
		Bipolar Disorder
		Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders
		Causal Factors in Mood Disorders
		Applying Psychological Science Understanding and Preventing Suicide
		Levels of Analysis Anxiety and Mood Disorders
	SCHIZOPHRENIA
		Characteristics of Schizophrenia
		Subtypes of Schizophrenia
		Causal Factors in Schizophrenia
		Myth or Reality? People with Psychological Disorders Are Dangerous
	PERSONALITY DISORDERS
		Antisocial Personality Disorder (Psychopathy)
		Research Close-up Inside the Brains of Successful and Unsuccessful Psychopaths
		Borderline Personality Disorder
	CHILDHOOD DISORDERS
		Attention Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder
		Autistic Disorder
	SCIENTIFIC AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN DIAGNOSIS
		DSM-V: Integrating Categorical and Dimensional Approaches
		Consequences of Diagnostic Labeling
		A Closing Thought
16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders
	PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS
	PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES
		Psychoanalysis
		Brief Psychodynamic and Interpersonal Therapies
	HUMANISTIC PSYCHOTHERAPIES
		Person-Centered Therapy
		Gestalt Therapy
	COGNITIVE THERAPIES
		Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy
		Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
	BEHAVIOR THERAPIES
		Exposure: An Extinction Approach
		Systematic Desensitization: A Counterconditioning Approach
		Aversion Therapy
		Operant Conditioning Treatments
		Modeling and Social Skills Training
		“Third-Wave” Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies
	GROUP, FAMILY, AND MARITAL THERAPIES
		Family Therapy
		Marital Therapy
	CULTURAL AND GENDER ISSUES IN PSYCHOTHERAPY
		Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization
		Gender Issues in Therapy
	BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO TREATMENT
		Drug Therapies
		Myth or Reality? Antidepressant Drugs Are Safe and Effective
		Electroconvulsive Therapy
		Psychosurgery
		Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions
		Levels of Analysis Therapeutic Change
	EVALUATING TREATMENTS
		Psychotherapy Research Methods
		Thinking Critically Do Survey Results Provide an Accurate Picture of Treatment Effectiveness?
		Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy
		Research Close-up Drug versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial
	PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS AND SOCIETY
		Deinstitutionalization
		Mental Health Treatment in Today’s Health-Care Environment
		Preventive Mental Health
		Applying Psychological Science When and Where to Seek Therapy
17 Social Thinking and Behavior
	SOCIAL THINKING
		Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
		Forming and Maintaining Impressions
		Attitudes and Attitude Change
	SOCIAL INFLUENCE
		Norms, Conformity, and Obedience
		Research Close-up The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority
		Thinking Critically Do Women Differ from Men in Obedience?
		Detecting and Resisting Compliance Techniques
		Behavior in Groups
	SOCIAL RELATIONS
		Attraction: Liking and Loving Others
		Applying Psychological Science Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research
	Prejudice: Bias against Others
	Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others
	Thinking Critically Does Pure Altruism Really Exist?
	Aggression: Harming Others
	Myth or Reality? Violent Video Games Promote Aggression
	A Final Word
	Levels of Analysis Aggression
APPENDIX: Statistics in Psychology
Glossary
References
Credits
Name Index
Subject Index