Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
About the Authors......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 10
Preface......Page 28
Contents......Page 12
CHAPTER 1: The Science of Psychology......Page 38
THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY......Page 39
Psychology as a Basic and Applied Science......Page 40
Psychology’s Broad Scope: A Levels of-Analysis Framework......Page 41
Psychology’s Intellectual Roots......Page 43
Early Schools: Structuralism and Functionalism......Page 44
The Psychodynamic Perspective: The Forces Within......Page 45
The Behavioral Perspective: The Power of the Environment......Page 46
The Humanistic Perspective: Self-Actualization and Positive Psychology......Page 47
The Cognitive Perspective: The Thinking Human......Page 48
The Sociocultural Perspective: The Embedded Human......Page 50
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Love and Marriage in Eleven Cultures......Page 51
The Biological Perspective: The Brain, Genes, and Evolution......Page 52
An Example: Understanding Depression......Page 55
Summary of Major Themes......Page 56
BENEATH THE SURFACE What Did You Expect?......Page 57
A Global Science and Profession......Page 58
Psychology and Public Policy......Page 59
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Enhance Your Academic Performance......Page 60
CHAPTER 2: Studying Behavior Scientifically......Page 64
SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHOLOGY......Page 65
Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process......Page 66
Two Approaches to Understanding Behavior......Page 68
Defining and Measuring Variables......Page 70
ETHICAL PRINCIPLES IN RESEARCH......Page 72
Ethical Standards in Human Research......Page 73
Descriptive Research: Recording Events......Page 74
Correlational Research: Measuring Associations Between Events......Page 78
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Very Happy People......Page 79
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Eating Ice Cream Cause People to Drown?......Page 80
Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect......Page 82
Placebo Effects......Page 87
Replicating and Generalizing the Findings......Page 88
BENEATH THE SURFACE Science, Psychics, and the Paranormal......Page 89
Being a Smart Consumer of Statistics......Page 90
Using Statistics to Describe Data......Page 91
Using Statistics to Make Inferences......Page 92
CRITICAL THINKING IN SCIENCE AND EVERYDAY LIFE......Page 93
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Evaluating Claims in Research and Everyday Life......Page 94
CHAPTER 3: Genes, Environment, and Behavior......Page 97
GENETIC INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOR......Page 99
Chromosomes and Genes......Page 100
Behavior Genetics......Page 102
How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms......Page 104
Why Do We Learn? The Search for Functions......Page 105
Learning, Culture, and Evolution......Page 106
Genes, Environment, and Intelligence......Page 107
Personality Development......Page 109
How the Environment Can Influence Gene Expression......Page 110
How Genes Can Influence the Environment......Page 112
GENETIC MANIPULATION AND CONTROL......Page 113
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Thinking Critically about Genetic Screening......Page 114
EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOR: INFLUENCES FROM THE DISTANT PAST......Page 115
Evolution of Adaptive Mechanisms......Page 116
Evolution and Human Nature......Page 118
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Sex Differences in the Ideal Mate: Evolution or Social Roles?......Page 121
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Not to Think about Evolutionary Theory......Page 124
CHAPTER 4: The Brain and Behavior......Page 128
NEURONS......Page 130
The Electrical Activity of Neurons......Page 131
Neurotransmitters......Page 133
Specialized Neurotransmitter Systems......Page 134
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Drugs Affect Your Brain......Page 136
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 137
The Central Nervous System......Page 139
The Hindbrain......Page 143
The Midbrain......Page 144
The Forebrain......Page 145
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Inside the Brain of a Killer......Page 150
The Split Brain: Dividing the Hemispheres......Page 152
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Two Minds in One Brain?......Page 153
PLASTICITY IN THE BRAIN: THE ROLE OF EXPERIENCE AND THE RECOVERY OF FUNCTION......Page 154
How Experience Influences Brain Development......Page 155
Healing the Nervous System......Page 156
Interactions with the Endocrine System......Page 157
Interactions Involving the Immune System......Page 158
CHAPTER 5: Sensation and Perception......Page 162
SENSORY PROCESSES......Page 164
Signal Detection Theory......Page 165
BENEATH THE SURFACE Are Subliminal Self-Help Products Effective?......Page 166
Sensory Adaptation......Page 167
THE SENSORY SYSTEMS......Page 168
Vision......Page 169
Audition......Page 176
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Navigating in Fog: Professor Mayer’s Topophone......Page 180
Taste and Smell: The Chemical Senses......Page 181
The Skin and Body Senses......Page 182
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Sensory Prosthetics: “Eyes” for the Blind, “Ears” for the Hearing Impaired......Page 184
PERCEPTION: THE CREATION OF EXPERIENCE......Page 187
Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention......Page 188
Perceptions Have Organization and Structure......Page 189
Perception Is Influenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets......Page 191
Stimuli Are Recognizable Under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies......Page 192
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Does That Rising MoonLook So Big?......Page 193
Depth and Distance Perception......Page 194
Perception of Movement......Page 195
ILLUSIONS: FALSE PERCEPTUAL HYPOTHESES......Page 196
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Explain This Striking Illusion......Page 197
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stalking a Deadly Illusion......Page 198
EXPERIENCE, CRITICAL PERIODS, AND PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 200
Cross-Cultural Research on Perception......Page 201
Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience......Page 202
Restored Sensory Capacity......Page 203
Some Final Reflections......Page 204
CHAPTER 6: States of Consciousness......Page 206
Characteristics of Consciousness......Page 208
Levels of Consciousness......Page 209
Unconscious Perception and Influence......Page 210
Why Do We Have Consciousness?......Page 211
The Neural Basis of Consciousness......Page 212
Keeping Time: Brain and Environment......Page 214
Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms......Page 215
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Outsmarting Jet Lag, Night-Work Disruptions, and Winter Depression......Page 216
Stages of Sleep......Page 217
Getting a Night’s Sleep: From Brain to Culture......Page 219
How Much Do We Sleep?......Page 220
Sleep Deprivation......Page 221
Why Do We Sleep?......Page 222
Sleep Disorders......Page 223
The Nature of Dreams......Page 225
BENEATH THE SURFACE When Dreams Come True......Page 227
Drugs and the Brain......Page 230
Drug Tolerance and Dependence......Page 231
Depressants......Page 233
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drinking and Driving: Decision Making in Altered States......Page 234
Stimulants......Page 235
Marijuana......Page 237
From Genes to Culture: Determinants of Drug Effects......Page 238
Hypnotic Behaviors and Experiences......Page 240
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Hypnosis and Amazing Feats......Page 241
Theories of Hypnosis......Page 242
The Hypnotized Brain......Page 244
CHAPTER 7: Learning: The Role of Experience......Page 247
Habituation......Page 249
Pavlov’s Pioneering Research......Page 250
Basic Principles......Page 251
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Why Did Carol’s Car Phobia Persist?......Page 253
Applications of Classical Conditioning......Page 254
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Was the “Little Albert” Study Ethical?......Page 255
Skinner’s Analysis of Operant Conditioning......Page 257
Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond......Page 259
Consequences: Determining How to Respond......Page 260
BENEATH THE SURFACE Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child?......Page 262
Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time......Page 264
Generalization and Discrimination......Page 265
Schedules of Reinforcement......Page 266
Escape and Avoidance Conditioning......Page 268
Applications of Operant Conditioning......Page 269
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Using Operant Principles to Modify Your Behavior......Page 271
Biological Constraints: Evolution and Preparedness......Page 273
Cognition and Conditioning......Page 275
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory......Page 280
Applications of Observational Learning......Page 281
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Using Social-Cognitive Theory to Prevent AIDS: A National Experiment......Page 282
THE ADAPTIVE BRAIN......Page 283
CHAPTER 8: Memory......Page 287
A Three-Stage Model......Page 289
Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better......Page 294
Exposure and Rehearsal......Page 295
Organization and Imagery......Page 296
How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding......Page 297
Encoding and Exceptional Memory......Page 298
Memory as a Network......Page 299
Types of Long-Term Memory......Page 301
RETRIEVAL: ACCESSING INFORMATION......Page 302
Arousal, Emotion, and Memory......Page 303
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do We Really Remember It Like It Was Yesterday?......Page 305
The Effects of Context, State, and Mood on Memory......Page 306
The Course of Forgetting......Page 308
Why Do We Forget?......Page 309
Amnesia......Page 311
MEMORY AS A CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESS......Page 313
Memory Distortion and Schemas......Page 314
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Memory Illusions: Remembering Things Tha tNever Occurred......Page 315
Misinformation Effects and Eyewitness Testimony......Page 316
The Child as Eyewitness......Page 317
The Recovered Memory Controversy......Page 318
Culture and Memory Construction......Page 319
Where Are Memories Formed and Stored?......Page 321
How Are Memories Formed?......Page 323
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Improving Memory and Academic Learning......Page 324
CHAPTER 9: Language and Thinking......Page 327
LANGUAGE......Page 328
Properties of Language......Page 329
The Structure of Language......Page 330
Understanding and Producing Language......Page 331
WHAT DO YOU THINK? The Sleeping Policeman......Page 334
Acquiring a First Language......Page 335
Bilingualism......Page 339
BENEATH THE SURFACE Learning a Second Language: Is Earlier Better?......Page 340
Linguistic Influences on Thinking......Page 342
Thought, Brain, and Mind......Page 344
Concepts and Propositions......Page 345
Reasoning......Page 346
Problem Solving and Decision Making......Page 348
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving......Page 353
Knowledge, Expertise, and Wisdom......Page 354
Mental Imagery......Page 356
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP “Why Did I Get That Wrong?” Improving College Students’ Awareness of Whether They Understand Text Material......Page 359
CHAPTER 10: Intelligence......Page 365
Sir Francis Galton: Quantifying Mental Ability......Page 367
Alfred Binet’s Mental Tests......Page 368
The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect......Page 369
Cognitive Process Approaches: The Nature of Intelligent Thinking......Page 373
Broader Conceptions of Intelligence: Beyond Mental Competencies......Page 374
THE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE......Page 377
Should We Test for Aptitude or Achievement?......Page 378
Psychometric Standards for Intelligence Tests......Page 379
Assessing Intelligence in Non-Western Cultures......Page 383
BENEATH THE SURFACE Brain Size and Intelligence......Page 384
HEREDITY, ENVIRONMENT, AND INTELLIGENCE......Page 385
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Early-childhood Interventions: A Means of Boosting Intelligence?......Page 387
GROUP DIFFERENCES IN INTELLIGENCE......Page 388
Ethnic Group Differences......Page 389
Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities......Page 390
Beliefs, Expectations, and Cognitive Performance......Page 391
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Stereotype Threat and Cognitive Performance......Page 392
The Intellectually Gifted......Page 393
Mental Retardation......Page 394
A Concluding Thought......Page 395
CHAPTER 11: Motivation and Emotion......Page 399
MOTIVATION......Page 400
Perspectives on Motivation......Page 401
Hunger and Weight Regulation......Page 404
Sexual Motivation......Page 412
Social Motivation......Page 418
Achievement Motivation......Page 420
Motivational Conflict......Page 424
The Nature of Emotions......Page 425
BENEATH THE SURFACE The Lie Detector Controversy......Page 430
Theories of Emotion......Page 435
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Cognition-Arousal Relations: Two Classic Experiments......Page 437
Happiness......Page 440
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE How to Be Happy: Guidelines from Psychological Research......Page 442
A Concluding Thought......Page 443
CHAPTER 12: Development Over the Life Span......Page 445
MAJOR ISSUES AND METHODS......Page 446
Genetics and Sex Determination......Page 448
Environmental Influences......Page 449
Sensory Capabilities and Perceptual Preferences......Page 450
Physical Development......Page 452
Cognitive Development......Page 453
Social-Emotional and Personality Development......Page 459
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Shy Child, Shy Adult?......Page 461
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children......Page 465
Moral Development......Page 468
ADOLESCENCE AND ADULTHOOD......Page 471
Physical Development......Page 472
Cognitive Development......Page 473
BENEATH THE SURFACE Aging and Mental Ability: Use It or Lose It?......Page 476
Social-Emotional Development......Page 478
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP What Does It Take to Become an Adult?......Page 481
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Cohabitation as a “Trial Marriage”......Page 484
CHAPTER 13:  Personality......Page 489
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?......Page 491
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory......Page 492
Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approaches......Page 495
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Attachment Style and Abusive Romantic Relationships......Page 498
Evaluating the Psychodynamic Approach......Page 499
George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory......Page 501
Carl Rogers’s Theory of the Self......Page 502
Research on the Self......Page 504
Evaluating the Phenomenological-Humanistic Approach......Page 506
Factor Analytic Approaches......Page 507
Evaluating the Trait Approach......Page 510
Genetics and Personality......Page 511
Personality and the Nervous System......Page 512
Evaluating the Biological Approach......Page 514
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORIES......Page 515
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control......Page 516
Albert Bandura: Social Learning and Self-Efficacy......Page 517
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting......Page 519
Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda: The Cognitive-Affective Personality System......Page 520
Reconciling Personality Coherence with Behavioral Inconsistency......Page 522
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories......Page 523
CULTURE, GENDER, AND PERSONALITY......Page 525
Culture Differences......Page 526
PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT......Page 527
Interviews......Page 528
Remote Behavior Sampling......Page 529
Personality Scales......Page 530
Projective Tests......Page 531
CHAPTER 14: Adjusting to Life: Stress, Coping, and Health......Page 534
Stressors......Page 536
The Stress Response: AMind-Body Link......Page 538
Effects of Stress on Well-Being......Page 539
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Stressful Events Cause Psychological Distress?......Page 540
Factors That Influence Stress-Health Relations......Page 543
COPING WITH STRESS......Page 548
Controllability and Coping Efficacy......Page 549
Bottling Up Feelings: The Hidden Costs of Emotional Constraint......Page 550
Gender, Culture, and Coping......Page 551
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Hold My Hand and I’ll Be Fine......Page 552
Stress Management Training......Page 554
PAIN AND PAIN MANAGEMENT......Page 555
Biological Mechanisms of Pain......Page 556
Cultural and Psychological Influences on Pain......Page 558
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Psychological Techniques for Controlling Pain and Suffering......Page 560
How People Change: The Transtheoretical Model......Page 563
Increasing Behaviors That Enhance Health......Page 565
Reducing Behaviors That Impair Health......Page 568
BENEATH THE SURFACE College-Age Drinking: Harmless Fun or Russian Roulette?......Page 571
Relapse Prevention: Maintaining Positive Behavior Change......Page 572
A Concluding Thought......Page 574
CHAPTER 15: Psychological Disorders......Page 576
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON DEVIANT BEHAVIOR......Page 578
What Is “Abnormal”?......Page 580
Diagnosing Psychological Disorders......Page 581
Consequences of Diagnostic Labeling......Page 582
ANXIETY DISORDERS......Page 583
Generalized Anxiety Disorder......Page 584
Panic Disorder......Page 585
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 586
Causal Factors in Anxiety Disorders......Page 587
Somatoform Disorders......Page 591
Dissociative Disorders......Page 592
Depression......Page 593
Bipolar Disorder......Page 594
Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders......Page 595
Causal Factors in Mood Disorders......Page 596
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Understanding and Preventing Suicide......Page 599
Characteristics of Schizophrenia......Page 601
Subtypes of Schizophrenia......Page 602
Causal Factors in Schizophrenia......Page 603
Antisocial Personality Disorder......Page 607
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Fear, Avoidance Learning, and Psychopathy......Page 610
Borderline Personality Disorder......Page 612
BENEATH THE SURFACE How Dangerous Are People with Psychological Disorders?......Page 613
Autistic Disorder......Page 615
A Closing Thought......Page 617
CHAPTER 16: Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 619
PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS......Page 620
PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES......Page 621
Psychoanalysis......Page 622
Brief Psychodynamic and Interpersonal Therapies......Page 624
Person-Centered Therapy......Page 625
Gestalt Therapy......Page 626
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy......Page 627
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy......Page 628
Exposure: An Extinction Approach......Page 629
Systematic Desensitization: A Counterconditioning Approach......Page 630
Aversion Therapy......Page 631
Operant Conditioning Treatments......Page 632
INTEGRATING AND COMBINING THERAPIES......Page 634
GROUP, FAMILY, AND MARITAL THERAPIES......Page 635
Marital Therapy......Page 636
Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization......Page 637
Gender Issues in Therapy......Page 638
Eysenck’s Great Challenge......Page 639
Psychotherapy Research Methods......Page 640
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Survey Results Provide an Accurate Picture of Treatment Effectiveness?......Page 641
Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy......Page 643
Drug Therapies......Page 645
BENEATH THE SURFACE Some Depressing Facts about Antidepressant Drugs......Page 647
Electroconvulsive Therapy......Page 648
Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions......Page 649
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP Drugs versus Psychological Treatments for Depression: A Randomized Clinical Trial......Page 651
Deinstitutionalization......Page 653
Mental Health Treatment in a Managed-Care Environment......Page 654
Preventive Mental Health......Page 655
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE When and Where to Seek Therapy......Page 657
CHAPTER 17: Social Thinking and Behavior......Page 660
Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior......Page 661
Forming and Maintaining Impressions......Page 664
Attitudes and Attitude Change......Page 665
Norms, Conformity, and Obedience......Page 670
RESEARCH CLOSE-UP The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience Confronts Malevolent Authority......Page 673
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Do Women Differ from Men in Obedience?......Page 676
Detecting and Resisting Compliance Techniques......Page 677
Behavior in Groups......Page 678
Attraction: Liking and Loving Others......Page 681
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research......Page 685
Prejudice: Bias against Others......Page 687
Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others......Page 693
WHAT DO YOU THINK? Does Pure Altruism Really Exist?......Page 694
Aggression: Harming Others......Page 695
BENEATH THE SURFACE Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression?......Page 699
A Final Word......Page 700
APPENDIX: STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY......Page 704
CREDITS......Page 714
GLOSSARY......Page 718
REFERENCES......Page 738
NAME INDEX......Page 792
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 802