Psychology in Everyday Life

Title......Page 2
Copyright......Page 4
Brief Contents......Page 10
Contents......Page 13
Preface......Page 33
Time Management: Or, How to Be a Great Student and Still Have a Life......Page 76
CHAPTER 1 Psychology’s Roots, Big Ideas, and Critical Thinking Tools......Page 91
Psychology’s Roots......Page 95
Psychological Science’s Birth and Development......Page 96
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Scientific Attitude......Page 98
Contemporary Psychology......Page 104
Four Big Ideas in Psychology......Page 109
Big Idea 1: Critical Thinking Is Smart Thinking......Page 110
Big Idea 2: Behavior Is a Biopsychosocial Event......Page 111
Big Idea 3: We Operate With a Two-Track Mind (Dual Processing)......Page 116
Big Idea 4: Psychology Explores Human Strengths as Well as Challenges......Page 117
Why Do Psychology?......Page 118
The Limits of Intuition and Common Sense......Page 119
How Do Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions?......Page 124
The Scientific Method......Page 125
Description......Page 129
Correlation......Page 136
Experimentation......Page 140
How Would You Know Which Research Design to Use?......Page 147
Predicting Everyday Behavior......Page 149
Psychology’s Research Ethics......Page 151
Studying and Protecting Animals......Page 152
Studying and Protecting Humans......Page 153
Values in Psychology......Page 155
Use Psychology to Become a Stronger Person—and a Better Student......Page 157
CHAPTER 2 The Biology of Mind and Consciousness......Page 170
The Brain: A Work in Progress......Page 174
A Neuron’s Structure......Page 177
How Neurons Communicate......Page 181
How Neurotransmitters Influence Us......Page 184
The Nervous System......Page 187
The Peripheral Nervous System......Page 188
The Central Nervous System......Page 193
The Endocrine System......Page 195
Tools of Discovery—Having Our Head Examined......Page 199
Older Brain Structures......Page 204
The Cerebral Cortex......Page 215
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Using More Than 10 Percent of Our Brain......Page 225
The Power of Plasticity: Responding to Damage......Page 228
Our Divided Brain......Page 230
Brain States and Consciousness......Page 236
Selective Attention......Page 238
Sleep and Dreams......Page 244
CHAPTER 3 Developing Through the Life Span......Page 281
Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues......Page 285
Nature and Nurture......Page 286
Continuity and Stages......Page 287
Stability and Change......Page 288
Conception......Page 291
Prenatal Development......Page 299
The Competent Newborn......Page 302
Twin and Adoption Studies......Page 305
Physical Development......Page 310
Cognitive Development......Page 317
Social Development......Page 333
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Parenting Styles—Too Hard, Too Soft, Too Uncaring, and Just Right?......Page 346
Adolescence......Page 347
Physical Development......Page 348
Cognitive Development......Page 352
Social Development......Page 357
Emerging Adulthood......Page 366
Adulthood......Page 369
Physical Development......Page 370
Cognitive Development......Page 374
Social Development......Page 378
CHAPTER 4 Sex, Gender, and Sexuality......Page 397
How Are We Alike? How Do We Differ?......Page 401
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Gender Bias in the Workplace......Page 407
The Nature of Gender: Our Biological Sex......Page 409
The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture and Experiences......Page 416
The Physiology of Sex......Page 424
The Psychology of Sex......Page 432
Sexual Orientation......Page 439
Why Do We Differ?......Page 443
How Do We Differ? A Summary......Page 449
An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality......Page 451
Male-Female Differences in Sexuality......Page 452
Natural Selection and Mating Preferences......Page 454
Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective......Page 457
Social Influences on Human Sexuality......Page 460
Reflections on the Nature and Nurture of Sex, Gender, and Sexuality......Page 461
CHAPTER 5 Sensation and Perception......Page 471
Basic Concepts of Sensation and Perception......Page 474
From Outer Energy to Inner Brain Activity......Page 476
Thresholds......Page 477
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Subliminal Sensation and Subliminal Persuasion......Page 482
Sensory Adaptation......Page 483
Perceptual Set......Page 487
Context, Motivation, and Emotion......Page 489
Light Energy and Eye Structures......Page 494
Information Processing in the Eye and Brain......Page 500
Perceptual Organization......Page 512
Perceptual Interpretation......Page 526
Hearing......Page 531
Touch......Page 539
Taste......Page 549
Smell......Page 550
Body Position and Movement......Page 553
Sensory Interaction......Page 556
ESP—Perception Without Sensation?......Page 560
CHAPTER 6 Learning......Page 575
How Do We Learn?......Page 578
Pavlov’s Experiments......Page 582
Pavlov’s Legacy......Page 593
Operant Conditioning......Page 596
Skinner’s Experiments......Page 597
Skinner’s Legacy......Page 613
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning......Page 618
Biological Limits on Conditioning......Page 619
Cognitive Influences on Conditioning......Page 624
Learning by Observation......Page 629
Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain......Page 632
Applications of Observational Learning......Page 634
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Effects of Viewing Media Violence......Page 638
CHAPTER 7 Memory......Page 648
Studying Memory......Page 652
An Information-Processing Model......Page 654
Our Two-Track Memory System......Page 657
Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories......Page 658
Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories......Page 659
Retaining Information in the Brain......Page 669
Synaptic Changes......Page 676
Measuring Retention......Page 680
Retrieval Cues......Page 684
Forgetting......Page 690
Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind......Page 693
Encoding Failure......Page 695
Storage Decay......Page 696
Retrieval Failure......Page 698
Memory Construction Errors......Page 703
Misinformation and Imagination Effects......Page 705
Source Amnesia......Page 707
Recognizing False Memories......Page 708
Children’s Eyewitness Recall......Page 709
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Can Memories of Childhood Sexual Abuse Be Repressed and Then Recovered?......Page 710
Improving Memory......Page 713
CHAPTER 8 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence......Page 726
Concepts......Page 729
Solving Problems......Page 730
Making Good (and Bad) Decisions and Judgments......Page 734
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Fear Factor......Page 739
Thinking Creatively......Page 747
Do Other Species Share Our Cognitive Skills?......Page 753
Language......Page 756
Language Development......Page 757
The Brain and Language......Page 765
Thinking Without Language......Page 768
Do Other Species Have Language?......Page 770
Intelligence......Page 774
What Is Intelligence?......Page 775
Assessing Intelligence......Page 783
The Nature and Nurture of Intelligence......Page 796
Intelligence Across the Life Span......Page 803
Group Differences in Intelligence Test Scores......Page 807
CHAPTER 9 Motivation and Emotion......Page 827
Motivational Concepts......Page 831
Drives and Incentives......Page 832
Arousal Theory......Page 834
A Hierarchy of Needs......Page 835
Hunger......Page 839
The Physiology of Hunger......Page 840
The Psychology of Hunger......Page 846
Obesity and Weight Control......Page 850
The Need to Belong......Page 855
The Benefits of Belonging......Page 857
The Pain of Being Shut Out......Page 859
Connecting and Social Networking......Page 862
Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition......Page 868
Historical Emotion Theories......Page 870
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = Emotion......Page 873
Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the Two-Track Brain......Page 875
The Basic Emotions......Page 878
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System......Page 879
The Physiology of Emotions......Page 880
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Lie Detection......Page 883
Detecting Emotion in Others......Page 884
Culture and Emotion......Page 888
The Effects of Facial Expressions......Page 893
CHAPTER 10 Stress, Health, and Human Flourishing......Page 904
Stress: Some Basic Concepts......Page 908
Stressors—Things That Push Our Buttons......Page 909
Stress Reactions—From Alarm to Exhaustion......Page 911
Stress Effects and Health......Page 915
Stress and AIDS......Page 919
Stress and Cancer......Page 920
Stress and Heart Disease......Page 922
Coping With Stress......Page 927
Personal Control, Health, and Well-Being......Page 929
Is the Glass Half Full or Half Empty?......Page 936
Social Support......Page 940
Finding Meaning......Page 944
Aerobic Exercise......Page 945
Relaxation and Meditation......Page 949
Faith Communities and Health......Page 952
Happiness......Page 956
The Short Life of Emotional Ups and Downs......Page 960
Wealth and Well-Being......Page 963
Why Can’t Money Buy More Happiness?......Page 965
Predictors of Happiness......Page 968
CHAPTER 11 Social Psychology......Page 981
Social Thinking......Page 984
The Fundamental Attribution Error......Page 985
Attitudes and Actions......Page 988
Conformity and Obedience......Page 996
Group Influence......Page 1009
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Internet as Social Amplifier......Page 1019
Prejudice......Page 1020
Aggression......Page 1033
Attraction......Page 1044
Altruism......Page 1059
Conflict and Peacemaking......Page 1066
CHAPTER 12 Personality......Page 1082
Psychodynamic Theories......Page 1086
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective: Exploring the Unconscious......Page 1087
The Neo-Freudian and Later Psychodynamic Theorists......Page 1099
Assessing Unconscious Processes......Page 1101
Evaluating Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective and Modern Views of the Unconscious......Page 1105
Abraham Maslow’s Self-Actualizing Person......Page 1110
Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Perspective......Page 1112
Assessing the Self......Page 1115
Evaluating Humanistic Theories......Page 1116
Exploring Traits......Page 1118
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Stigma of Introversion......Page 1121
Assessing Traits......Page 1122
The Big Five Factors......Page 1123
Evaluating Trait Theories......Page 1127
Reciprocal Influences......Page 1131
Evaluating Social-Cognitive Theories......Page 1135
Exploring the Self......Page 1137
The Benefits of Self-Esteem......Page 1139
Self-Serving Bias......Page 1142
Culture and the Self......Page 1146
CHAPTER 13 Psychological Disorders......Page 1160
What Is a Psychological Disorder?......Page 1164
Defining Psychological Disorders......Page 1165
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: ADHD—Normal High Energy or Disordered Behavior?......Page 1168
Classifying Disorders—and Labeling People......Page 1173
Anxiety Disorders......Page 1178
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)......Page 1183
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)......Page 1184
Understanding Anxiety Disorders, OCD, and PTSD......Page 1187
Substance Use Disorders and Addictive Behaviors......Page 1192
Tolerance and Addictive Behaviors......Page 1194
Depressants......Page 1197
Stimulants......Page 1201
Hallucinogens......Page 1208
Understanding Substance Use Disorders......Page 1213
Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder......Page 1218
Major Depressive Disorder......Page 1220
Bipolar Disorder......Page 1221
Understanding Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorder......Page 1223
Suicide and Self-Injury......Page 1235
Schizophrenia......Page 1237
Symptoms of Schizophrenia......Page 1238
Onset and Development of Schizophrenia......Page 1241
Understanding Schizophrenia......Page 1242
Eating Disorders......Page 1249
Dissociative Disorders......Page 1253
Personality Disorders......Page 1257
Does “Disorder” Equal “Danger”?......Page 1262
CHAPTER 14 Therapy......Page 1275
Treating Psychological Disorders......Page 1279
The Psychological Therapies......Page 1281
Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapy......Page 1282
Humanistic Therapies......Page 1287
Behavior Therapies......Page 1291
Cognitive Therapies......Page 1299
Group and Family Therapies......Page 1306
Evaluating Psychotherapies......Page 1309
Is Psychotherapy Effective?......Page 1310
Which Psychotherapies Work Best?......Page 1314
How Do Psychotherapies Help People?......Page 1318
How Do Culture and Values Influence Psychotherapy?......Page 1320
Finding a Mental Health Professional......Page 1322
The Biomedical Therapies......Page 1323
THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: Therapeutic Lifestyle Change......Page 1324
Drug Therapies......Page 1326
Brain Stimulation......Page 1332
Psychosurgery......Page 1339
Preventing Psychological Disorders and Building Resilience......Page 1341
Preventive Mental Health......Page 1342
Building Resilience......Page 1343
APPENDIX A Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life......Page 1353
APPENDIX B Psychology at Work......Page 1376
APPENDIX C Subfields of Psychology......Page 1400
APPENDIX D Complete Chapter Reviews......Page 1413
APPENDIX E Answers to Chapter Test Questions......Page 1516
Glossary......Page 1545
Glosario......Page 1590
References......Page 1645
Name Index......Page 1966
Subject Index......Page 2080