Psychology Eighth Edition

Cover Page......Page 2
LaunchPad with LearningCurve......Page 3
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 7
About the Authors......Page 8
Brief Contents......Page 10
Contents......Page 12
An Introduction and Note From Peter Gray......Page 28
An Introduction and Note From David Bjorklund......Page 29
Preface......Page 31
Media and Supplements......Page 40
Acknowledgments......Page 45
Halftitle Page......Page 47
Part I: Foundations for the Study of Psychology......Page 48
Chapter 1 Background to the Study of Psychology......Page 49
The Idea of Physical Causation of Behavior......Page 54
The Idea That the Mind and Behavior Are Shaped by Experience......Page 61
The Idea That the Machinery of Behavior and Mind Evolved Through Natural Selection......Page 64
Varieties of Explanations in Psychology and Their Application to Sexual Jealousy......Page 71
A Comment on Psychological Specialties......Page 84
Psychology Connects With Other Scholarly Fields......Page 86
Psychology as a Profession......Page 88
Thoughts About Using This Book and Its Special Features......Page 91
Using the Focus Questions to Guide Your Study......Page 92
Thinking Critically About The Study of Psychology......Page 100
Key Terms......Page 103
Find Out More......Page 104
Chapter 2 Methods of Psychology......Page 106
The Mystery......Page 110
The Solution......Page 111
Observations, Theories, and Hypotheses......Page 113
The Lessons......Page 114
Research Designs......Page 117
Research Settings......Page 126
Data-Collection Methods......Page 127
Descriptive Statistics......Page 132
Inferential Statistics......Page 137
Minimizing Bias in Psychological Research......Page 141
Avoiding Biased Samples......Page 142
Reliability and Validity of Measurements......Page 144
Avoiding Observer-Expectancy and Subject-Expectancy Effects......Page 146
Replicating Earlier Studies......Page 153
Research With Humans......Page 157
Research With Nonhuman Animals......Page 158
Formal Principles and Safeguards for Ethical Research......Page 160
Thinking Critically About Methods of Psychology......Page 161
Key Terms......Page 163
Find Out More......Page 165
Part II: The Biological Bases of Behavior......Page 167
Chapter 3 Genetics and Evolutionary Foundations of Behavior......Page 168
How Genes Affect Behavior......Page 172
How Genes Are Passed Along in Sexual Reproduction......Page 177
Examples of Single-Gene (Mendelian) Behavioral Traits......Page 186
Polygenic Characteristics and Selective Breeding......Page 188
Epigenetics: How Genes Really Get Turned On and Off......Page 194
Darwin’s Insight: Selective Breeding Occurs in Nature......Page 199
Genetic Diversity Provides the Material for Natural Selection......Page 200
Environmental Change Provides the Force for Natural Selection......Page 202
Evolution Has No Foresight......Page 204
Distal and Proximate Explanations of Behavior......Page 207
Limitations on Functionalist Thinking......Page 209
Natural Selection as a Foundation for Understanding Species-Typical Behaviors......Page 214
Species-Typical Behaviors in Humans......Page 215
The Value of Cross-Species Comparisons of Species-Typical Behaviors......Page 221
A Theory Relating Mating Patterns to Parental Investment......Page 228
What About Human Mating Patterns?......Page 236
Sex Differences in Aggression......Page 241
Patterns of Helping......Page 243
Thinking Critically About Genetics and Evolution......Page 251
Key Terms......Page 253
Find Out More......Page 255
Chapter 4 The Neural Control of Behavior......Page 257
Neurons: The Building Blocks of the Brain......Page 261
Three Basic Varieties of Neurons, and Structures Common to Them......Page 262
How Neurons Send Messages Along Their Axons......Page 266
How Neurons Influence Other Neurons: Synaptic Transmission......Page 271
The Development of Neurons......Page 276
Mirror Neurons: A Means of Social Learning?......Page 277
Methods Used for Studying the Human Brain......Page 283
Methods Used for Studying the Brains of Nonhuman Animals......Page 290
Peripheral Nerves: The Nervous System’s Interface With the World......Page 294
The Spinal Cord: A Conduit and an Organizer of Simple Behaviors......Page 298
Subcortical Structures of the Brain......Page 300
The Cerebral Cortex......Page 307
How Hormones Interact With the Nervous System......Page 317
How Hormones Are Controlled by the Brain......Page 318
Hormonal Influences on Sex Drive......Page 321
Hemispheric Differences in the Cerebral Cortex......Page 327
Effects of Surgical Separation of the Hemispheres: Split Brain, Split Mind......Page 328
Language Areas of the Left Hemisphere......Page 335
If You Use It, It Will Grow......Page 341
Strengthening of Synapses as a Foundation for Learning......Page 345
The Evolution of the Human Brain......Page 350
Thinking Critically About Neural Control of Behavior......Page 354
Key Terms......Page 356
Find Out More......Page 359
Chapter 5 Mechanisms of Motivation and Emotion......Page 361
General Principles of Motivation......Page 364
Varieties of Drives......Page 366
Drives as States of the Brain......Page 370
Three Components of Reward: Liking, Wanting, and Reinforcement......Page 373
Hijacking the Brain’s Reward System......Page 379
Neural and Hormonal Control of Appetite......Page 384
Problems of Obesity......Page 390
Description of Sleep as a Physiological and Behavioral State......Page 396
Theories About the Functions of Sleep......Page 402
Brain Mechanisms Controlling Sleep......Page 412
The Nature and Value of Emotions......Page 417
Effects of Bodily Responses on Emotional Feelings......Page 424
Brain Mechanisms of Emotion......Page 430
Thinking Critically About Motivation and Emotion......Page 436
Key Terms......Page 438
Find Out More......Page 439
Part III: Sensation and Perception......Page 441
Chapter 6 Smell, Taste, Pain, Hearing, and Psychophysics......Page 442
Each Sensory System Has Distinct Receptors and Neural Pathways......Page 446
Sensory Systems Preserve Information About Stimulus Quantity and Quality......Page 449
Sensory Systems Respond to Changes More Than to Steady States......Page 451
The Absolute Threshold Is a Measure of Sensitivity......Page 454
The Difference Threshold Depends on the Magnitude of the Original Stimulus......Page 455
Signal Detection Theory......Page 457
Anatomy and Physiology of Smell......Page 460
Discriminating Among Individuals by Smell......Page 464
Smell as a Mode of Communication: Do Humans Produce Pheromones?......Page 467
Anatomy and Physiology of Taste......Page 472
An Evolutionary Account of Taste Quality......Page 473
Pain......Page 479
Neural Pathways for Pain......Page 480
The Modulation of Pain......Page 483
Sound and Its Transduction by the Ear......Page 489
Pitch Perception......Page 497
Making Sense of Sounds......Page 500
Thinking Critically About Smell, Taste, Pain, Hearing, and Psychophysics......Page 507
Key Terms......Page 509
Find Out More......Page 511
Chapter 7 The Psychology of Vision......Page 513
How the Eye Works......Page 516
Functional Organization of the Eye......Page 517
Differences Between Cone Vision and Rod Vision......Page 520
Seeing Colors......Page 524
The Trichromatic Theory......Page 525
The Opponent-Process Theory......Page 529
Vision at Birth......Page 534
Is “Experience” Necessary to See?......Page 536
The Detection and Integration of Stimulus Features......Page 539
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Grouping......Page 545
Evidence That Wholes Can Affect the Perception of Parts......Page 550
Recognizing Objects......Page 552
Recognizing Faces......Page 558
Cues for Depth Perception......Page 568
The Role of Depth Cues in Size Perception......Page 574
Multisensory Integration......Page 581
Synesthesia......Page 583
Thinking Critically About The Psychology of Vision......Page 588
Key Terms......Page 590
Find Out More......Page 593
Part IV: Learning and Thinking......Page 595
Chapter 8 Basic Processes of Learning......Page 596
Classical Conditioning......Page 600
Fundamentals of Classical Conditioning......Page 601
What Is Learned in Classical Conditioning?......Page 607
Conditioned Fear, Liking, Hunger, and Sexual Arousal......Page 615
Conditioned Drug Reactions......Page 620
From the Law of Effect to Operant Conditioning: From Thorndike to Skinner......Page 626
Principles of Reinforcement......Page 634
Discrimination Training in Operant Conditioning......Page 640
Behavior Analysis......Page 644
Play: How the Young Learn How......Page 651
Exploration: How Animals Learn What and Where......Page 655
Social Learning: Learning by Watching and Interacting With Others......Page 661
Special Abilities for Learning What to Eat......Page 668
Other Examples of Special Learning Abilities......Page 674
Thinking Critically About Processes of Learning......Page 684
Key Terms......Page 686
Find Out More......Page 688
Chapter 9 Memory, Attention, and Consciousness......Page 690
Overview: An Information-Processing Model of the Mind......Page 694
The Short-Term Store: Conscious Perception and Thought......Page 695
Control Processes: The Mind’s Information Transportation Systems......Page 698
“Fast” and “Slow” Thinking: Dual-Processing Theories of Cognition......Page 701
Attention: The Portal to Consciousness......Page 705
The Ability to Focus Attention and Ignore the Irrelevant......Page 706
The Ability to Shift Attention to Significant Stimuli......Page 709
Unconscious, Automatic Processing of Stimulus Input......Page 711
Brain Mechanisms of Preattentive Processing and Attention......Page 715
Verbal Working Memory: The Phonological Loop......Page 719
Working-Memory Span......Page 722
Executive Functions......Page 726
Four General Conclusions About Executive Functions......Page 727
Neurological Basis of Executive Functions......Page 729
Explicit and Implicit Memory......Page 733
Neuropsychological Evidence for Separate Memory Systems......Page 740
Encoding Information Into Long-Term Memory......Page 748
Memory Consolidation......Page 760
Retrieving Information From Long-Term Memory......Page 767
Mental Associations as Foundations for Retrieval......Page 768
Memory Construction as a Source of Distortion......Page 771
Prospective Memory and Mental Time Travel......Page 779
Thinking Critically About Memory, Attention, and Consciousness......Page 782
Key Terms......Page 784
Find Out More......Page 786
Chapter 10 Solving Problems: Reasoning and Intelligence......Page 788
Analogies as Foundations for Reasoning......Page 792
Inductive Reasoning and Some Biases in It......Page 801
How People Reason II: Deduction and Insight......Page 809
The Concrete Nature of Deductive Reasoning......Page 810
Elements of Insight......Page 814
An East–West Difference: Focus on Wholes Versus Parts......Page 823
A Brief History of Intelligence Testing......Page 829
The Validity of Intelligence Tests as Predictors of Achievement......Page 833
The Concept of General Intelligence and Attempts to Explain It......Page 835
Nature, Nurture, and IQ Differences......Page 845
Origins of IQ Differences Between Cultural Groups......Page 857
The Historical Increase in IQ......Page 864
Thinking Critically About Reasoning and Intelligence......Page 868
Key Terms......Page 870
Find Out More......Page 871
Part V: Growth of the Mind and Person......Page 873
Chapter 11 The Development of Body, Thought, and Language......Page 874
Prenatal Development......Page 878
Physical Development: Puberty and Adolescence......Page 883
The Infant as Explorer......Page 889
Infants’ Knowledge of Core Physical Principles......Page 894
Piaget’s Theory: Role of the Child’s Own Actions in Mental Growth......Page 902
Vygotsky’s Theory: Role of the Sociocultural Environment in Mental Growth......Page 914
An Information-Processing Perspective on Mental Development......Page 925
Even Very Young Children Explain Behavior in Mental Terms......Page 935
Autism: A Disorder in Understanding Minds......Page 941
Universal Characteristics of Human Language......Page 945
The Course of Language Development......Page 947
The Idea of Special Inborn Mechanisms for Language Learning......Page 958
The Language-Acquisition Support System......Page 963
Bilingualism......Page 965
Thinking Critically About The Development of Body, Thought, and Language......Page 970
Key Terms......Page 972
Find Out More......Page 974
Chapter 12 Social Development......Page 976
Infancy: Using Caregivers as a Base for Growth......Page 980
Attachment to Caregivers......Page 981
Cross-Cultural Differences in Infant Care......Page 989
The Development of Prosocial Behavior......Page 993
Social Learning......Page 996
Parenting Styles......Page 1002
Correlations Between Disciplinary Styles and Children’s Behavior......Page 1003
The Cause–Effect Problem in Relating Parenting Style to Children’s Behavior......Page 1004
Developmental Functions of Play......Page 1006
Gender Differences in Social Development......Page 1010
Adolescence: Breaking Out of the Cocoon......Page 1022
Shifting From Parents to Peers for Intimacy and Guidance......Page 1023
Increased Rates of Recklessness and Delinquency......Page 1024
An Expanded Moral Vision and Moral Sense of Self......Page 1031
Sexual Explorations......Page 1034
Love......Page 1045
Employment......Page 1049
Growing Old......Page 1053
Thinking Critically About Social Development......Page 1060
Key Terms......Page 1062
Find Out More......Page 1063
Part VI: Social and Personality Psychology......Page 1065
Chapter 13 Social Psychology......Page 1066
The Person Bias in Attributions......Page 1069
Effects of Facial Features on Person Perceptions......Page 1073
Forming Impressions on the Internet......Page 1077
Seeing Ourselves Through the Eyes of Others......Page 1081
Actively Constructing Our Self-Perceptions......Page 1084
Attitudes, Explicit and Implicit: Their Origins and Their Effects on Behavior......Page 1088
Attitudes as Rationalizations to Attain Cognitive Consistency......Page 1090
In-Groups and Out-Groups and Their Effects on Perception and Behavior......Page 1096
Distinction Between Explicit and Implicit Stereotypes......Page 1097
Implicit Stereotypes Can Be Deadly......Page 1099
Defeating Explicit and Implicit Negative Stereotypes......Page 1100
Facilitating and Interfering Effects of an Audience......Page 1103
Choking Under Pressure: The Working-Memory Explanation......Page 1106
Stereotype Threat as a Special Cause of Choking......Page 1107
Impression Management: Behavior as Performance......Page 1109
Effects of Others’ Examples, Opinions, and Requests......Page 1112
Asch’s Classic Conformity Experiments......Page 1113
Norms as Forces for Helpful and Harmful Actions......Page 1115
Social Pressure in Group Discussions......Page 1120
Requests and Sales Pressure: Some Principles of Compliance......Page 1123
Conditions That Promote Obedience: Milgram’s Experiments......Page 1127
The Tragedy of the Commons: A Social-Dilemma Allegory......Page 1138
Conditions That Promote Cooperation......Page 1140
Group Against Group: Lessons from Robbers Cave......Page 1144
Thinking Critically About Social Psychology......Page 1150
Key Terms......Page 1152
Find Out More......Page 1154
Chapter 14 Personality......Page 1156
Personality as Behavioral Dispositions, or Traits......Page 1160
Trait Theories: Efficient Systems for Describing Personalities......Page 1162
The Relationship of Personality Measures to People’s Actual Behavior......Page 1170
Continuity and Change in Personality Over Time......Page 1174
Genetic Foundations of Personality Traits......Page 1177
Advantages of Being Different From One Another......Page 1183
Adapting to the Family Environment......Page 1191
Adapting to One’s Gender......Page 1195
Elements of the Psychodynamic Perspective......Page 1202
Defensive Styles as Dimensions of Personality......Page 1213
The Humanistic Perspective: The Self and Life’s Meanings......Page 1216
Beliefs Viewed as Personality Traits......Page 1222
The Idea of Situation-Specific Personality Traits......Page 1232
Cross-Cultural Differences in Personality......Page 1237
Thinking Critically About Personality......Page 1242
Key Terms......Page 1244
Find Out More......Page 1246
Part VII: Psychological Disorders and Treatment......Page 1248
Chapter 15 Psychological Disorders......Page 1249
Problems in Identifying Psychological Disorders......Page 1253
What Is a Psychological Disorder?......Page 1254
Categorizing and Diagnosing Psychological Disorders......Page 1255
Cultural Variations in Disorders and Diagnoses......Page 1261
The Brain Is Involved in All Psychological Disorders......Page 1268
A Framework for Thinking About Multiple Causes of Psychological Disorders......Page 1270
Possible Causes of Sex Differences in the Prevalence of Specific Disorders......Page 1274
Generalized Anxiety Disorder......Page 1279
Phobias......Page 1281
Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia......Page 1286
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder......Page 1288
Traumatic and Stress-Related Disorders: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 1292
Depressive Disorders......Page 1297
Bipolar Disorders......Page 1306
Schizophrenia......Page 1313
Diagnostic Characteristics of Schizophrenia......Page 1314
Neurological Factors Associated With Schizophrenia......Page 1318
Genetic and Environmental Causes of Schizophrenia......Page 1321
Personality Disorders......Page 1332
Cluster A: “Odd” Personality Disorders......Page 1334
Cluster B: “Dramatic” Personality Disorders......Page 1335
Origins of Personality Disorders......Page 1338
Thinking Critically About Psychological Disorders......Page 1341
Key Terms......Page 1344
Find Out More......Page 1346
Chapter 16 Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 1348
What to Do With Individuals With Severe Psychological Disorders? A Brief History......Page 1351
Structure of the Mental Health System......Page 1353
Drugs......Page 1358
Other Biologically Based Treatments......Page 1365
Psychotherapy I: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Therapies......Page 1372
Principles of Psychodynamic Therapies......Page 1373
Principles of Humanistic Therapy......Page 1380
Principles of Behavior Therapy......Page 1386
A Case Example: Miss Muffet Overcomes Her Spider Phobia......Page 1390
Principles of Cognitive Therapy......Page 1391
A Case Example: Beck’s Cognitive Treatment of a Depressed Young Woman......Page 1396
Is Psychotherapy Helpful, and Are Some Types of It More Helpful Than Others?......Page 1401
The Role of Common Factors in Therapy Outcome......Page 1405
Thinking Critically About Treatment of Psychological Disorders......Page 1411
Key Terms......Page 1413
Find Out More......Page 1414
Statistical Appendix......Page 1416
Glossary......Page 1434
References......Page 1491
Name Index......Page 1666
Subject Index......Page 1786
Backcover......Page 1847