Psychology

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright Page......Page 3
Brief Contents......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Teaching and Learning Package......Page 12
Acknowledgments......Page 18
About the Authors......Page 21
Psychology in Action Secrets for Surviving College and Improving Your Grades......Page 23
 Study Skills......Page 25
 Managing Time......Page 26
 Reading the Text: Textbooks Are Not Meatloaf......Page 28
 Getting the Most Out of Lectures......Page 31
 Studying for Exams: Cramming Is Not an Option......Page 32
 Improving Your Memory......Page 36
 Writing Papers......Page 38
 Your Ethical Responsibility as a Student......Page 40
 Psychology in Action Summary......Page 41
 Test Yourself......Page 42
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology......Page 43
 The History of Psychology......Page 45
  In the Beginning: Wundt, Titchener, and James......Page 46
  Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalysis, and Behaviorism......Page 48
  Modern Perspectives......Page 52
  Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization......Page 56
  The Scientific Approach......Page 59
  Descriptive Methods......Page 64
  Correlations: Finding Relationships......Page 67
  The Experiment......Page 69
  Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects......Page 72
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Sample Experiment......Page 75
  The Guidelines for Doing Research with People......Page 76
  Animal Research......Page 78
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking......Page 79
  Chapter Summary......Page 82
  Test Yourself......Page 83
Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective......Page 85
  Structure of the Neuron: The Nervous System’s Building Block......Page 87
  Generating the Message within the Neuron: The Neural Impulse......Page 89
  Neurotransmission......Page 91
 An Overview of the Nervous System......Page 96
  The Central Nervous System: The “Central Processing Unit”......Page 97
  The Peripheral Nervous System: Nerves on the Edge......Page 100
 Distant Connections: The Endocrine Glands......Page 104
  The Pituitary: Master of the Hormonal Universe......Page 105
  Other Endocrine Glands......Page 106
  Methods for Studying Specific Regions of the Brain......Page 108
  Neuroimaging Techniques......Page 109
  The Hindbrain......Page 114
  Structures Under the Cortex: The Limbic System......Page 116
  The Cortex......Page 118
  The Association Areas of the Cortex......Page 121
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Through the Looking Glass—Spatial Neglect......Page 122
  The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in Your Right Mind?......Page 123
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: ­Phineas Gage and Neuroplasticity......Page 126
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Paying Attention to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder......Page 128
  Chapter Summary......Page 129
  Test Yourself......Page 132
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception......Page 133
  Sensory Thresholds......Page 135
  Habituation and Sensory Adaptation......Page 137
  Light and the Eye......Page 138
  The Visual Pathway......Page 142
  Perception of Color......Page 143
  Sound Waves and the Ear......Page 148
  Perceiving Pitch......Page 150
  Types of Hearing Impairments......Page 151
 Chemical Senses: It Tastes Good and Smells Even Better......Page 152
  Gustation: How We Taste the World......Page 153
  The Sense of Scents: Olfaction......Page 155
  Somesthetic Senses......Page 157
  Body Movement and Position......Page 159
  How We Organize Our Perceptions......Page 161
  Depth Perception......Page 164
  Perceptual Illusions......Page 166
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: ­Perceptual Influences on Metacognition......Page 171
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Beyond “Smoke and Mirrors”—The Psychological Science and Neuroscience of Magic......Page 172
  Chapter Summary......Page 173
  Test Yourself......Page 175
Chapter 4: Consciousness......Page 177
  Altered States of Consciousness......Page 179
  The Biology of Sleep......Page 181
  Why We Sleep......Page 183
  The Stages of Sleep......Page 186
  Sleep Disorders......Page 189
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Weight Gain and Sleep......Page 194
  Why Do We Dream?......Page 195
  What Do People Dream About?......Page 197
  How Hypnosis Works......Page 199
  Theories of Hypnosis......Page 200
  Dependence......Page 202
  Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away......Page 204
  Down in the Valley: Depressants......Page 207
  Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher......Page 209
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Thinking Critically About Ghosts, Aliens, and Other Things That Go Bump in the Night......Page 213
  Chapter Summary......Page 214
  Test Yourself......Page 215
Chapter 5: Learning......Page 217
  Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs......Page 219
  Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior......Page 225
  The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner......Page 229
  The Concept of Reinforcement......Page 230
  Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is So Seductive......Page 233
  The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning......Page 237
  Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning......Page 241
  Applications of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification......Page 242
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning......Page 243
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Spare the Rod, Spoil the Child?......Page 248
  Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning......Page 249
  Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning......Page 250
  Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness......Page 251
  Bandura and the Bobo Doll......Page 254
  The Four Elements of Observational Learning......Page 256
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Can You Really ­Toilet Train Your Cat?......Page 257
  Chapter Summary......Page 259
  Test Yourself......Page 261
Chapter 6: Memory......Page 263
  Models of Memory......Page 265
  Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Takes?......Page 268
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Sperling’s Iconic Memory Test......Page 269
  Short-Term Memory......Page 271
  Long-Term Memory......Page 274
  Retrieval Cues......Page 280
  Recall and Recognition......Page 282
  Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories......Page 285
  The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories?......Page 286
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Effects of Supplements on Memory......Page 290
 What Were We Talking About? Forgetting......Page 292
  Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve......Page 293
  Reasons We Forget......Page 294
  The Biological Bases of Memory......Page 296
  When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia......Page 298
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Health and Memory......Page 301
  Chapter Summary......Page 303
  Test Yourself......Page 304
Chapter 7: Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language......Page 307
  Mental Imagery......Page 309
  Concepts and Prototypes......Page 310
  Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies......Page 312
  Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making......Page 315
  Creativity......Page 316
  Theories of Intelligence......Page 319
  Measuring Intelligence......Page 323
  Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?......Page 325
  Individual Differences in Intelligence......Page 329
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Terman’s “Termites”......Page 332
  The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence......Page 334
  The Levels of Language Analysis......Page 339
  Development of Language......Page 340
  The Relationship between Language and Thought......Page 341
  Animal Studies in Language......Page 343
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: A Cognitive Advantage for Bilingual Individuals?......Page 345
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Mental and ­Physical Exercises for Better Cognitive Health......Page 346
  Chapter Summary......Page 348
  Test Yourself......Page 349
Chapter 8: Development across the Life Span......Page 351
  Nature and Nurture......Page 353
  The Basic Building Blocks of Development......Page 355
  Fertilization......Page 359
  Three Stages of Development......Page 360
  Physical Development......Page 363
 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Visual Cliff......Page 366
  Cognitive Development......Page 367
  Psychosocial Development......Page 372
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Harlow and Contact Comfort......Page 374
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: The Facts About Immunizations......Page 378
  Physical Development......Page 379
  Cognitive Development......Page 380
  Psychosocial Development......Page 381
  Physical Development: Use It or Lose It......Page 383
  Psychosocial Development......Page 385
  Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging......Page 387
  Stages of Death and Dying......Page 388
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cross-Cultural Views on Death......Page 390
  Chapter Summary......Page 391
  Test Yourself......Page 394
Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion......Page 395
  Defining Motivation......Page 397
  Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation......Page 398
  Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs......Page 400
  Arousal and Incentive Approaches......Page 401
  Humanistic Approaches......Page 404
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cultural Differences in the Use of Praise as a Motivator......Page 408
   Physiological and Social Components of Hunger......Page 409
   Obesity......Page 412
   The Three Elements of Emotion......Page 414
   Early Theories of Emotion......Page 419
 Classic Studies in Psychology: The Angry/Happy Man......Page 422
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: When Motivation Is Not Enough......Page 427
  Chapter Summary......Page 428
  Test Yourself......Page 430
Chapter 10: Sexuality and Gender......Page 431
  The Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics......Page 433
  The Development of Sex Characteristics......Page 434
  Gender Identity......Page 436
  Gender-Role Development......Page 440
  Gender Differences......Page 443
  Sexual Response......Page 445
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Masters and Johnson’s ­Observational Study of the Human Sexual Response......Page 446
  Different Types of Sexual Behavior......Page 447
  Sexual Orientation......Page 450
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking......Page 454
  Sexually Transmitted Infections......Page 455
  Chapter Summary......Page 458
  Test Yourself......Page 460
Chapter 11: Stress and Health......Page 461
  The Relationship between Stress and Stressors......Page 463
  Environmental Stressors: Life’s Ups and Downs......Page 464
  Psychological Stressors: What, Me Worry?......Page 468
  The General Adaptation Syndrome......Page 473
  The Immune System and Stress......Page 474
  Health Psychology......Page 478
  Cognitive Factors in Stress......Page 479
  Personality Factors in Stress......Page 481
  Social and Cultural Factors in Stress: People Who Need People......Page 484
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Reasoning and Critical Thinking: Homeopathy: An Illusion of Healing......Page 488
  Coping Strategies......Page 489
  How Social Support Affects Coping......Page 492
  How Religion Affects Coping......Page 493
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Coping with Stress Through Mindfulness Meditation......Page 495
  Chapter Summary......Page 496
  Test Yourself......Page 497
Chapter 12: Social Psychology......Page 499
  Conformity......Page 501
  Group Behavior......Page 503
  Compliance......Page 505
  Obedience......Page 507
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Cults and the Failure of Critical Thinking......Page 511
  Attitudes......Page 512
  Attitude Change: The Art of Persuasion......Page 515
  Cognitive Dissonance: When Attitudes and Behavior Clash......Page 516
  Impression Formation......Page 518
  Attribution......Page 519
  Prejudice and Discrimination......Page 523
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes......Page 525
  Interpersonal Attraction......Page 528
  Love Is a Triangle—Robert Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love......Page 530
  Aggression......Page 531
  Prosocial Behavior......Page 535
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Peeking Inside the Social Brain......Page 540
  Chapter Summary......Page 541
  Test Yourself......Page 543
Chapter 13: Theories of Personality......Page 545
  Freud’s Conception of Personality......Page 547
  Stages of Personality Development......Page 550
  The Neo-Freudians......Page 552
  Current Thoughts on Freud and the Psychodynamic Perspective......Page 553
  Learning Theories......Page 556
  Current Thoughts on the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Learning Views......Page 558
  Carl Rogers and the Humanistic Perspective......Page 559
  Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality......Page 561
  Allport and Cattell: Early Attempts to List and Describe Traits......Page 562
  Modern Trait Theories: The Big Five......Page 564
  Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective......Page 565
  The Biology of Personality: Behavioral Genetics......Page 567
 Classic Studies in Psychology: Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural Personality......Page 569
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Personality, Family, and Culture......Page 571
  Interviews, Behavioral Assessments, and Personality Inventories......Page 572
  Projective Tests......Page 576
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Biological Bases of Personality......Page 578
  Chapter Summary......Page 580
  Test Yourself......Page 582
Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders......Page 583
  Changing Conceptions of Abnormality......Page 585
  Models of Abnormality......Page 587
  Diagnosing and Classifying Disorders......Page 589
  Anxiety Disorders......Page 594
  Other Disorders Related to Anxiety......Page 596
  Causes of Anxiety, Trauma, and Stress Disorders......Page 598
  Types of Dissociative Disorders......Page 601
  Causes of Dissociative Disorders......Page 602
  Major Depressive Disorder and Bipolar Disorders......Page 604
  Causes of Disordered Mood......Page 606
  Eating Disorders......Page 608
  Sexual Dysfunctions and Problems......Page 611
  Symptoms of Schizophrenia......Page 613
  Causes of Schizophrenia......Page 615
  Categories of Personality Disorders......Page 618
  Causes of Personality Disorders......Page 619
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Learning More: Psychological Disorders......Page 620
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Taking the Worry Out of Exams......Page 621
  Chapter Summary......Page 623
  Test Yourself......Page 625
Chapter 15: Psychological Therapies......Page 627
 Treatment of Psychological Disorders: Past to Present......Page 629
  Psychotherapy Begins: Freud’s Psychoanalysis......Page 631
  Humanistic Therapy: To Err Is Human......Page 633
  Behavior Therapies: Learning One’s Way To Better Behavior......Page 637
  Cognitive Therapies: Thinking Is Believing......Page 642
  Types of Group Therapies......Page 646
  Evaluation of Group Therapy......Page 647
 Does Psychotherapy Really Work?......Page 648
  Studies of Effectiveness......Page 649
  Characteristics of Effective Therapy......Page 650
 APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking: Does It Work? Psychological Treatment......Page 654
  Psychopharmacology......Page 656
  Ect and Psychosurgery......Page 660
  Emerging Techniques......Page 662
 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Virtual Reality Therapies......Page 664
  Chapter Summary......Page 665
  Test Yourself......Page 667
Appendix A: Statistics in Psychology......Page 670
Appendix B: Applied Psychology and Psychology Careers......Page 684
Glossary......Page 698
References......Page 714
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