Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing

Part I Overview of the Psychoeducational Assessment
and Report Writing Process
 1 Purpose of Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing ........ 3
 1.1 Defi nition and Purpose of Psychoeducational Assessment ........... 3
 1.2 Who Conducts Psychoeducational Assessments? ......................... 4
 1.3 Psychoeducational Versus Psychological Assessment
and Report Writing ........................................................................ 5
 1.4 Feedback Conference ..................................................................... 6
 1.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 6
 2 The Psychoeducational Assessment Process ......................................... 7
 2.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 7
 2.2 Steps in the Psychoeducational Assessment Process ..................... 7
 2.3 Working with Children................................................................... 9
 2.4 Observing the Child ....................................................................... 10
 2.5 The Testing Environment and the Test Session ............................. 10
 2.5.1 Establish a Working, Not a Therapeutic, Relationship
with the Child ................................................................... 10
 2.5.2 Take Advantage of the Honeymoon Effect ...................... 11
 2.5.3 The Room Layout ............................................................ 11
 2.5.4 How to Start the Testing Session ..................................... 12
 2.5.5 Examiner Anxiety ............................................................ 12
 2.5.6 Be Well Prepared and Adhere to Standardized
Directions ......................................................................... 13
 2.5.7 Triple Check Protocol Scoring ......................................... 13
 2.5.8 Breaks, Encouragement and Questions ............................ 13
 2.5.9 Debrief the Testing Process ............................................. 14
 2.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 14
 References ................................................................................................. 14
 Contents 
xii
 3 Interviewing and Gathering Data .......................................................... 17
 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 17
 3.2 Interviewing ................................................................................... 17
 3.3 Psychoeducational Interview Format ............................................. 18
 3.3.1 Caregiver/Parent Format .................................................. 19
 3.3.2 Teacher Format ................................................................ 22
 3.3.3 Student Interview Format ................................................. 23
 3.3.4 Interview Format for Mental Health Conditions
that Might Impact Educational Functioning .................... 29
 3.4 Gathering Background and Additional Data .................................. 30
 3.4.1 Structured Developmental History Questionnaires .......... 30
 3.4.2 Child Development Questionnaire (CDQ) ....................... 30
 3.4.3 Ascertaining Additional Background Information .......... 41
 3.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 41
 References ................................................................................................. 42
 4 Observing the Child ................................................................................ 43
 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 43
 4.2 Types of Observation ..................................................................... 44
 4.2.1 Naturalistic Observation .................................................. 44
 4.2.2 Systematic Direct Observation......................................... 47
 4.2.3 Time Sampling Procedures .............................................. 50
 4.2.4 Observation of Comparison Students .............................. 52
 4.2.5 Analogue Observation...................................................... 53
 4.2.6 Observation of Permanent Products ................................. 54
 4.2.7 Observation Systems ........................................................ 54
 4.3 How Many Observations Are Enough? ......................................... 58
 4.4 Observation of Student Behavior during Administration
of Standardized Assessments ......................................................... 59
 4.5 Hawthorne and Halo Effects .......................................................... 60
 4.6 Summary ........................................................................................ 60
 References ................................................................................................. 61
 5 General Guidelines on Report Writing ................................................. 63
 5.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 63
 5.2 Structure of the Psychoeducational Report .................................... 63
 5.3 Conceptual Issues in Psychoeducational Report Writing .............. 64
 5.3.1 Address Referral Questions ............................................. 64
 5.3.2 Avoid Making Predictive and Etiological Statements...... 65
 5.3.3 Make a Classifi cation Decision and Stand by It .............. 65
 5.3.4 Rule Out Other Classifi cations and State Why
You Ruled Them Out ....................................................... 66
 5.3.5 Use Multiple Sources of Data and Methods
of Assessment to Support Decision-Making .................... 66
 5.3.6 Eisegesis ........................................................................... 66
 5.3.7 Be Wary of Using Computer Generated Reports ............. 66
Contents
xiii
 5.3.8 Sparingly Use Pedantic Psychobabble ............................. 67
 5.3.9 Avoid Big Words and Write Parsimoniously ................... 68
 5.3.10 Address the Positive ......................................................... 68
 5.3.11 Write Useful, Concrete Recommendations ...................... 68
 5.4 Stylistic Issues in Psychoeducational Assessment
Report Writing ............................................................................... 69
 5.4.1 Report Length .................................................................. 69
 5.4.2 Revise Once, Revise Twice, Revise Thrice,
and Then Revise Once More ............................................ 69
 5.4.3 Avoid Pronoun Mistakes .................................................. 69
 5.4.4 Use Headings and Subheadings Freely ............................ 70
 5.4.5 Provide a Brief Description of Assessment Instruments ...... 70
 5.4.6 Use Tables and Charts to Present Results ........................ 70
 5.4.7 Put Selected Statements Within Quotations
to Emphasize a Point ........................................................ 71
 5.4.8 Improve Your Writing Style ............................................. 71
 5.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 71
 References ................................................................................................. 72
 Part II Section-by-Section Report Writing Guidance
 6 Identifying Information and Reason for Referral ............................... 75
 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 75
 6.2 Identifying Information .................................................................. 75
 6.3 Reason for Referral ........................................................................ 76
 6.3.1 Generic Referral ............................................................... 77
 6.3.2 Specifi c Referral ............................................................... 77
 6.3.3 Hybrid Referral Question ................................................. 78
 6.3.4 Example Referrals for IDEA Categories ......................... 78
 6.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 80
 References ................................................................................................. 80
 7 Assessment Methods and Background Information ............................ 81
 7.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 81
 7.2 Assessment Methods ...................................................................... 81
 7.3 Background Information and Early Developmental History ......... 83
 7.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 83
 7.3.2 Prenatal, Perinatal, and Early Developmental History .... 83
 7.3.3 Medical and Health .......................................................... 84
 7.3.4 Cognitive, Academic, and Language Functioning ........... 85
 7.3.5 Social, Emotional, Behavioral, and Adaptive
Functioning ...................................................................... 86
 7.3.6 Strengths and Interests ..................................................... 86
 7.3.7 Conclusion ....................................................................... 87
 References ................................................................................................. 87
Contents
xiv
 8 Assessment Results .................................................................................. 89
 8.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 89
 8.2 Organization of Assessment Results Section ................................. 89
 8.3 Format for Presentation of Assessment Instruments ..................... 90
 8.4 Understanding Standard and Scaled Scores ................................... 95
 8.4.1 Comment on Raw, Grade and Age Equivalent Scores ....... 97
 8.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 98
 References ................................................................................................. 98
 9 Conceptualization and Classification .................................................... 99
 9.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 99
 9.2 Integration of Information .............................................................. 99
 9.2.1 Guidelines for the Integration of Results ......................... 100
 9.3 General Framework for the Conceptualization
and Classifi cation Section .............................................................. 101
 9.4 Specifi c Conceptualization and Classifi cation Examples .............. 107
 9.4.1 Learning Disabilities Conceptualization
and Classifi cation ................................................................ 108
 9.4.2 Emotional Disturbance Conceptualization
and Classifi cation ................................................................ 109
 9.4.3 Conceptualization and Classifi cation of Autism ................ 112
 9.4.4 Classifi cation of Intellectual Disability .............................. 114
 9.4.5 Conceptualization and Classifi cation of OHI................... 114
 9.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 115
 References ................................................................................................. 115
 10 Summary and Recommendations .......................................................... 117
 10.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 117
 10.2 Summary Section ........................................................................... 117
 10.2.1 Contents of the Summary Section .................................... 118
 10.3 Recommendations Section ............................................................. 118
 10.3.1 Why do Psychologist’s Exclude Recommendations? .......... 119
 10.3.2 State Practices ..................................................................... 119
 10.3.3 Importance of Recommendations .................................... 120
 10.4 General Recommendation
Writing Guidelines ......................................................................... 121
 10.5 Why Recommendations Are Not Implemented? ........................... 123
 10.6 Recommendation Examples ........................................................... 124
 10.6.1 Sample Recommendations for Commonly Faced
Academic Diffi culties ......................................................... 124
 10.6.2 Sample Recommendations for Social, Emotional,
and Behavioral Diffi culties ............................................... 128
 10.7 Accommodations ........................................................................... 134
 10.7.1 Environmental Accommodations ....................................... 135
 10.7.2 Testing Accommodations ................................................... 135
 10.7.3 Homework/Classwork Modifi cations ............................... 135
Contents
xv
 10.8 Website Suggestions ...................................................................... 136
 10.9 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 137
 References ................................................................................................. 137
 Part III Guidance Regarding Assessment and Classifi cation of IDEA
Categories Including Sample Reports
 11 Learning Disabilities ................................................................................... 141
 11.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 141
 11.2 Historical Considerations ............................................................... 141
 11.3 Defi nition and Identifi cation of Learning Disabilities ................... 142
 11.4 General Guidance Regarding the Psychoeducational
Assessment of Learning Disabilities .............................................. 149
 11.5 Comment on Use of IQ Tests ......................................................... 149
 11.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 149
 Appendix: LD Report Example ................................................................ 150
 LD Report Example 2 with Concurrent ADHD Diagnosis ...................... 162
 References ................................................................................................. 172
 12 Autism ...................................................................................................... 175
 12.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 175
 12.2 Defi nition of Autism Within IDEA ................................................ 175
 12.3 Defi nition of Autism Within DSM-5 ............................................. 176
 12.4 Identifi cation of Autism ................................................................. 177
 12.5 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational
Assessment of ASD ....................................................................... 179
 12.5.1 Consider Comorbidity and Rule Out Selected Disorders ..... 180
 12.5.2 Cognitive Ability ...................................................................... 180
 12.5.3 Academic Achievement .......................................................... 181
 12.5.4 Communication and Language ............................................... 181
 12.5.5 Adaptive Functioning .............................................................. 181
 12.5.6 Fine and Gross Motor Skills............................................. 182
 12.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 182
 Appendix: Sample Report 1: High Functioning Autism Example ........... 183
 Sample Report 2: Low to Mid Functioning Autism ................................. 198
 Sample Report 3: Lower Functioning Autism .......................................... 209
 References ................................................................................................. 219
 13 Emotional Disturbance ........................................................................... 221
 13.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 221
 13.2 Defi nition ....................................................................................... 222
 13.3 Identifi cation .................................................................................. 222
 13.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational
Assessment of ED .......................................................................... 223
 13.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 225
Contents
xvi
 Appendix: Sample Report 1—Emotional Disturbance ............................. 226
 Sample Report 2—Emotional Disturbance ............................................... 241
 References ................................................................................................. 252
 14 Intellectual Disabilities ........................................................................... 255
 14.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 255
 14.2 Defi nition ....................................................................................... 255
 14.2.1 Etiology .................................................................................... 257
 14.2.2 Characteristics of Intellectual Disabilities ....................... 257
 14.3 Identifi cation of ID ......................................................................... 258
 14.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment ...... 258
 14.4.1 Dual Defi cit in IQ and Adaptive Behavior ............................. 258
 14.4.2 Tests of Intelligence ................................................................. 258
 14.4.3 Adaptive Behavior ........................................................... 259
 14.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 263
 Appendix: Sample Report ......................................................................... 263
 References ................................................................................................. 274
 15 Other Health Impaired ........................................................................... 277
 15.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 277
 15.2 Defi nition ....................................................................................... 277
 15.3 Identifi cation .................................................................................. 278
 15.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational
Assessment of OHI ........................................................................ 279
 15.4.1 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) .............. 279
 15.4.2 Other Health Conditions .................................................. 282
 15.5 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 283
Appendix: Sample Report 1—Qualify Without Outside
Diagnosis of ADHD .................................................................................. 283
 References ................................................................................................. 293
 16 Miscellaneous IDEA Categories and Section 504 ................................. 295
 16.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 295
 16.2 Section 504 ..................................................................................... 295
 16.2.1 Defi nition .................................................................................. 296
 16.2.2 Identifi cation and Psychoeducational Assessment ................ 297
 16.2.3 Conclusion ....................................................................... 297
 16.3 Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) ........................................................ 298
 16.3.1 Overview .................................................................................. 298
 16.3.2 Defi nition .................................................................................. 298
 16.3.3 Correlates of TBI ..................................................................... 298
 16.3.4 Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment ........... 299
 16.3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................ 300
 16.4 Visual Impairment/Blindness ......................................................... 300
 16.4.1 Overview .................................................................................. 300
 16.4.2 Defi nition .................................................................................. 300
Contents
xvii
 16.4.3 Identifi cation and Psychoeducational Assessment
Considerations .................................................................. 301
 16.4.4 Conclusion ....................................................................... 303
 16.5 Hearing Loss and Deafness ............................................................ 303
 16.5.1 Overview .................................................................................. 303
 16.5.2 Defi nition .................................................................................. 304
 16.5.3 Degree of Hearing Loss ........................................................... 304
 16.5.4 Identifi cation and Psychoeducational Assessment
Considerations .......................................................................... 305
 16.5.5 Conclusion ....................................................................... 305
 16.6 Orthopedic Impairment .................................................................. 306
 16.6.1 Overview .................................................................................. 306
 16.6.2 Defi nition .................................................................................. 306
 16.6.3 Psychoeducational Assessment Considerations .................... 307
 16.6.4 Conclusion........................................................................ 307
 Appendix: Section 504 Report Example ................................................... 308
 References ................................................................................................. 317
 Part IV Oral Reporting and Miscellaneous Topics
in Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing
 17 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners................................... 321
 17.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 321
 17.2 Psychoeducational Assessment Considerations ............................. 322
 17.2.1 General Concepts ..................................................................... 322
 17.2.2 Nondiscriminatory Assessment of Culturally
and Linguistically Diverse Students ................................ 324
 17.2.3 Additional Considerations ............................................... 324
 17.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 325
 References ................................................................................................. 325
 18 Oral Reporting ........................................................................................ 327
 18.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 327
 18.2 Format and Meeting Participants ................................................... 327
 18.3 General Framework for Feedback Conferences ............................. 328
 18.3.1 How to Start the Conference ................................................... 328
 18.3.2 Brief Description of Evaluation Process ................................ 329
 18.3.3 Presentation of Strengths-Based Assessmentand Then
the Classifi cation Conclusion .................................................. 329
 18.3.4 Address Any Questions or Concerns ...................................... 329
 18.3.5 Discuss Each Section of the Report ........................................ 330
 18.3.6 Integrate Findings .................................................................... 331
 18.3.7 Discuss Recommendations .............................................. 332
Contents
xviii
 18.4 Case Examples ............................................................................... 333
 18.4.1 Case Example 1: The Unexpected Response ......................... 333
 18.4.2 Case 2: The Caregiver in Denial ............................................. 334
 18.4.3 Case 3: The Appreciative Caregiver ................................ 335
 18.5 General Oral Reporting Guidelines ............................................... 336
 18.5.1 Facilitate the Meeting and Engage All Appropriate
Participants ............................................................................... 336
 18.5.2 Team Decision .......................................................................... 336
 18.5.3 Avoid Pedantic Psychobabble ................................................. 337
 18.5.4 Expect the Unexpected ............................................................ 337
 18.5.5 Pressure or Negotiation for a Classifi cation ........................... 337
 18.5.6 Be Empathetic but Maintain Boundaries ............................... 337
 18.5.7 Be Prepared .............................................................................. 337
 18.5.8 Be Direct but Gentle ................................................................ 337
 18.5.9 Speak Slowly and Permit Time for Caregivers to Process
Information and Ask Questions ....................................... 338
 18.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 338
 19 Special Issues in Psychoeducational Assessment
and Report Writing ................................................................................. 339
 19.1 Overview ........................................................................................ 339
 19.2 Applicable General Ethical Principles and Test Standards ............ 339
 19.2.1 Benefi cence and Nonmalefi cence ......................................... 340
 19.2.2 Respect for Rights and Dignity of Individuals ..................... 340
 19.2.3 Competence ............................................................................ 340
 19.2.4 Engage in Empirically Validated Practices ........................... 341
 19.2.5 Confl ict Between the Law and Ethical Standards ................ 342
 19.2.6 Confi dentiality and Maintenance of Records ....................... 342
 19.2.7 Limits to Confi dence .............................................................. 342
 19.2.8 Consent for Assessment ......................................................... 343
 19.2.9 Consent to Share Records ...................................................... 343
 19.2.10 Report Security ....................................................................... 343
 19.2.11 Release of Test Protocols ....................................................... 344
 19.2.12 Maintenance of Records .................................................. 344
 19.3 General Assessment and Report Writing Principles ...................... 344
 19.3.1 Avoid the Use of Age and Grade Equivalent Scores ........... 344
 19.3.2 Know Points on the Normal Curve ....................................... 345
 19.3.3 Evidence-Based Test Use and Interpretation .................. 345
 19.3.4 Avoid the Discrepancy Approach ................................... 346
 19.3.5 Adhere to Standardized Directions ....................................... 347
 19.3.6 Report Test Scores, But Do Not Overemphasize
Numbers .................................................................................. 347
 19.3.7 Fully Complete Test Protocols .............................................. 347
 19.3.8 Pressure or Negotiation for a Classifi cation.......................... 348
 19.3.9 No Classifi cation, Now What? .............................................. 348
Contents
xix
 19.3.10 Use of New Instruments ......................................................... 348
 19.3.11 Old Versus New Instruments ................................................. 349
 19.3.12 Consider Culture and Language ..................................... 350
 19.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 351
 References ................................................................................................. 351
 Index ................................................................................................................. 353