Psychoeducational assessment and report writing.

Preface
Contents
Editor and Contributors
Part I Overview of the Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing Process
1 Purpose of Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing
	1.1 Definition and Purpose of Psychoeducational Assessment
	1.2 Who Conducts Psychoeducational Assessments?
	1.3 Psychoeducational Versus Psychological Assessment and Report Writing
	1.4 Feedback Conference
	1.5 Conclusion
	References
2 A Newly Proposed Framework and a Clarion Call to Improve Practice
	2.1 Introduction and Historical Overview
	2.2 A Renewal of a Commitment
	2.3 The First Pillar of Evidence-Based Psychoeducational Assessment: Scientific Decision-Making and Critical Thinking
		2.3.1 Errors in Decision-Making
			2.3.1.1 Naïve Realism
			2.3.1.2 Confirmation Bias
			2.3.1.3 Premature Closure
			2.3.1.4 Belief Perseverance
			2.3.1.5 Illusory Correlation
			2.3.1.6 Hindsight Bias
			2.3.1.7 Groupthink
			2.3.1.8 Overreliance on Heuristics
			2.3.1.9 Base Rate Neglect
			2.3.1.10 Bias Blind Spot
			2.3.1.11 Unpacking
			2.3.1.12 Aggregate Bias
			2.3.1.13 Search Satisfying
			2.3.1.14 Diagnostic Overshadowing
			2.3.1.15 Diagnosis Momentum
			2.3.1.16 Psych Out Error
			2.3.1.17 Pathology Bias
		2.3.2 Warning Signs of Pseudoscience
			2.3.2.1 Lack of Falsifiability and Overuse of Ad Hoc Hypotheses
			2.3.2.2 Lack of Self-Correction
			2.3.2.3 Emphasis on Confirmation
			2.3.2.4 Avoidance of Peer Review
			2.3.2.5 Overreliance on Anecdotal and Testimonial Evidence
			2.3.2.6 Absence of Connectivity
			2.3.2.7 Extraordinary Claims
			2.3.2.8 Ad Antequitem Fallacy
			2.3.2.9 Use of Hypertechnical Language
			2.3.2.10 Reversed Burden of Proof
			2.3.2.11 Extensive Appeals to Authority or Gurus (i.e., Eminence-Based Assessment)
			2.3.2.12 Heavy Reliance on Endorsements from Presumed Experts
			2.3.2.13 Extensive Use of Neurobabble or Psychobabble
			2.3.2.14 Tendency of Advocates to Insulate Themselves from Criticism
			2.3.2.15 Limited or Non-existent Reporting of Contradictory Findings
	2.4 The Second Pillar of Evidence-Based Psychoeducational Assessment: Evidence-Based Instrument Selection, Metrics of Interpretability Evaluation, and Consideration of Diagnostic Utility
		2.4.1 Instrument Selection: Psychometric Considerations
		2.4.2 Metrics of Interpretability Evaluation
		2.4.3 Diagnostic and Treatment Validity/Utility Consideration
		2.4.4 Reasons for Continued Popularity of Non-empirically Supported Assessment Practices
			2.4.4.1 Illusory Correlation
			2.4.4.2 The P.T. Barnum Effect
			2.4.4.3 Overperception of Psychopathology (or Disability)
			2.4.4.4 The Alchemist’s Fantasy
			2.4.4.5 Clinical Tradition and Educational Inertia
			2.4.4.6 Confirmation Bias
			2.4.4.7 Hindsight Bias
			2.4.4.8 Overconfidence
			2.4.4.9 Suboptimal Psychometric Training and Education
	2.5 The Third Pillar of Evidence-Based Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing: Expert Clinical Judgment
		2.5.1 The Dimensions of Expertise
			2.5.1.1 Domain-Specificity
			2.5.1.2 Greater Knowledge and Experience
			2.5.1.3 Meaningful Perception
			2.5.1.4 Reflective, Qualitative Problem Analysis
			2.5.1.5 Effective Strategy Construction
			2.5.1.6 Postanalysis Speed and Accuracy
			2.5.1.7 Working Memory
			2.5.1.8 Self-monitoring Skills
		2.5.2 How to Develop Expert Clinical Judgment
	2.6 The Fourth Pillar of Evidence-Based Psychoeducational Assessment: A Well-Written, Organized, and Aesthetically Appealing Report that Is Properly Conveyed to Stakeholders
	References
3 The Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing Process: A General Overview
	3.1 Overview
	3.2 Steps in the Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing Process
	3.3 Working with Children
	3.4 Observing the Child
	3.5 The Testing Environment and the Test Session
		3.5.1 Establish a Working, not a Therapeutic, Relationship with the Child
		3.5.2 Take Advantage of the Honeymoon Effect
		3.5.3 The Room Layout
		3.5.4 How to Start the Testing Session
		3.5.5 Examiner Anxiety
		3.5.6 Be Well Prepared and Adhere to Standardized Directions
		3.5.7 Triple Check Protocol Scoring
		3.5.8 Breaks, Encouragement and Questions
		3.5.9 Debrief the Testing Process
	3.6 Conclusion
	References
4 Interviewing and Gathering Data
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Interviewing
		4.2.1 Do not Overlook the Need to Connect with Caregivers
		4.2.2 The Three Main Interviewing Approaches
	4.3 The Psychoeducational Interview Format
		4.3.1 Caregiver/Parent Format
		4.3.2 Teacher Format
		4.3.3 Student Interview Format
		4.3.4 Interview Format for Mental Health Conditions that Might Impact Educational Functioning
		4.3.5 A Semi-structured Psychoeducational Interview
	4.4 Gathering Background and Additional Data
		4.4.1 Structured Developmental History Questionnaires
		4.4.2 Child Development Questionnaire (CDQ)
		4.4.3 Ascertaining Additional Background Information
	4.5 Conclusion
	References
5 Observing the Child
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Types of Observation
		5.2.1 Naturalistic Observation
			5.2.1.1 Anecdotal Recording
			5.2.1.2 A-B-C Recording
		5.2.2 Systematic Direct Observation
			5.2.2.1 Event Recording
			5.2.2.2 Duration Recording
			5.2.2.3 Latency Recording
		5.2.3 Time Sampling Procedures
			5.2.3.1 Momentary Time Sampling
			5.2.3.2 Partial Interval Time Sampling
			5.2.3.3 Whole Interval Time Sampling
		5.2.4 Observation of Comparison Students
		5.2.5 Analog Observation
		5.2.6 Observation of Permanent Products
		5.2.7 Self and Peer Observation of Student Behavior
		5.2.8 Observation in the Home
		5.2.9 Observation Systems
			5.2.9.1 Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC-3)
			5.2.9.2 Behavioral Observation of Students in Schools (BOSS)
	5.3 How Many Observations Are Enough?
	5.4 Observation of Student Behavior During Administration of Standardized Assessments
	5.5 Hawthorne and Halo Effects
	5.6 Summary
	References
6 General Guidelines on Report Writing
	6.1 Overview
		6.1.1 Make the Report Aesthetically Appealing
	6.2 Structure of the Psychoeducational Report
	6.3 Conceptual Issues in Psychoeducational Report Writing
		6.3.1 Address Referral Questions
		6.3.2 Avoid Making Predictive and Etiological Statements
		6.3.3 Make a Classification Decision and Stand by It
		6.3.4 Rule Out Other Classifications and State Why You Ruled Them Out
		6.3.5 Use Multiple Sources of Data and Methods of Assessment to Support Decision-Making
		6.3.6 Eisegesis
		6.3.7 Be Wary of Using Computer-Generated Reports
		6.3.8 Sparingly Use Pedantic Psychobabble
		6.3.9 Avoid Big Words and Write Parsimoniously
		6.3.10 Address the Positive
		6.3.11 Write Useful, Concrete Recommendations
	6.4 Stylistic Issues in Psychoeducational Assessment Report Writing
		6.4.1 Report Length
		6.4.2 Revise Once, Revise Twice, Revise Thrice and then Revise Once More
		6.4.3 Avoid Pronoun Mistakes
		6.4.4 Use Headings and Subheadings Freely
		6.4.5 Provide a Brief Description of Assessment Instruments
		6.4.6 Use Tables and Charts to Present Results
		6.4.7 Put Selected Statements Within Quotations to Emphasize a Point
		6.4.8 Improve Your Writing Style
	6.5 Conclusion
	References
Part II Section-by-Section Report Writing Guidelines
7 Identifying Information and Reason for Referral
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Identifying Information
	7.3 Reason for Referral
		7.3.1 Generic Referral
		7.3.2 Hybrid Referral
		7.3.3 Example of Hybrid Referrals for IDEA Categories
	7.4 Conclusion
	References
8 Assessment Methods and Background Information
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Assessment Methods
	8.3 Background Information and Early Developmental History
		8.3.1 Introduction
		8.3.2 Prenatal, Perinatal, and Early Developmental History
		8.3.3 Medical and Health
		8.3.4 Cognitive, Academic, and Language Functioning
		8.3.5 Social, Emotional, Behavioral, and Adaptive Functioning
		8.3.6 Strengths and Interests
		8.3.7 Conclusion
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9 Assessment Results
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Organization of Assessment Results Section
	9.3 Format for Presentation of Assessment Instruments
	9.4 Understanding Standard and Scaled Scores
	9.5 Use of Confidence Intervals
	9.6 Comment on Raw, Grade, and Age Equivalent Scores
	9.7 Conclusion
	References
10 Conceptualization and Classification
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Integration of Information
		10.2.1 Guidelines for the Integration of Results
	10.3 General Framework for the Conceptualization and Classification Section
	10.4 Specific Conceptualization and Classification Examples
		10.4.1 Learning Disabilities Conceptualization and Classification
		10.4.2 Emotional Disturbance Conceptualization and Classification
		10.4.3 Conceptualization and Classification of Autism
		10.4.4 Classification of Intellectual Disability
		10.4.5 Conceptualization and Classification of OHI
	10.5 Conclusion
	References
11 Summary and Recommendations
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Summary Section
		11.2.1 Contents of the Summary Section
	11.3 Recommendations Section
		11.3.1 Why Do Psychologist’s Exclude Recommendations?
			11.3.1.1 State Practices
			11.3.1.2 Psychologist and School District Practice
		11.3.2 Importance of Recommendations
	11.4 General Recommendation Writing Guidelines
	11.5 Why Recommendations Are Not Implemented?
	11.6 Recommendation Examples
		11.6.1 Sample Recommendations for Commonly Faced Academic Difficulties
			11.6.1.1 Reading Difficulties
			11.6.1.2 Writing Difficulties
			11.6.1.3 Mathematics Difficulties
		11.6.2 Sample Recommendations for Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Difficulties
			11.6.2.1 Recommendations for ADHD
			11.6.2.2 Referral to a Child Psychiatrist for a Psychotropic Medication Evaluation
			11.6.2.3 Recommendations for Counseling/Psychotherapy
			11.6.2.4 Social Skills Intervention Recommendations
			11.6.2.5 Social Skills Recommendations for Children with Autism Spectrum
			11.6.2.6 Crisis Recommendations
			11.6.2.7 Parental Recommendations
	11.7 Accommodations
		11.7.1 Environmental Accommodations
		11.7.2 Testing Accommodations
		11.7.3 Homework/Classwork Modifications
	11.8 Web Site Suggestions
	11.9 Conclusion
	References
Part III Guidance Regarding Assessment and Classification of IDEA Categories Including Sample Reports
12 Learning Disabilities
	12.1 Overview
	12.2 Historical Definition and Conceptual Considerations
	12.3 Definition and Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities
		12.3.1 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fifth Edition (DSM-5)
		12.3.2 Developmental Learning Disorder (ICD-11)
		12.3.3 IDEA
		12.3.4 Response to Intervention (RTI)
			12.3.4.1 Advantages of RTI for SLD Assessment and Intervention
			12.3.4.2 Limitations of RTI for SLD Assessment and Intervention
		12.3.5 Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses (PSW)
			12.3.5.1 Historical Considerations
			12.3.5.2 Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses (PSW) for SLD Determination
			12.3.5.3 Discrepancy/Consistency Model (D/CM)
			12.3.5.4 Dual/Discrepancy Consistency Model (DD/C)
			12.3.5.5 Concordance/Discordance Model (C/DM)
			12.3.5.6 Core-Selective Evaluation Process (C-SEP)
			12.3.5.7 Strengths of the PSW Model
			12.3.5.8 Potential Weaknesses of the PSW Model
	12.4 General Guidance Regarding the Assessment of Learning Disabilities
		12.4.1 Alternative Research-Based Procedures
	12.5 Comment on Use of IQ Tests
	12.6 Conclusion
	Appendix
	LD REPORT EXAMPLE
	LD EXAMPLE WITH SUPPORT FOR ADHD
	LD EXAMPLE WITH CONSIDERATION OF OHI/ADHD
	References
13 Autism
	13.1 Overview
	13.2 Definition of Autism Within IDEA
	13.3 Definition of Autism Within DSM-5
	13.4 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ICD-11)
	13.5 Identification of Autism
	13.6 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment of ASD
		13.6.1 Consider Comorbidity and Rule Out Selected Disorders
		13.6.2 Cognitive Ability
		13.6.3 Academic Achievement
		13.6.4 Communication and Language
		13.6.5 Adaptive Functioning
		13.6.6 Fine and Gross Motor Skills
	13.7 Conclusion
	Appendix
	Sample Report 1: High Functioning Autism Example
	Sample Report 2: Low- to Mid-functioning Autism
	Sample Report 3: Lower Functioning Autism
	References
14 Emotional Disturbance
	14.1 Overview
	14.2 IDEA Definition
	14.3 Identification
	14.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment of ED
		14.4.1 Instrument Selection
		14.4.2 Eschew Projective Measures
		14.4.3 A More Behavioral Approach to Identification of ED that Considers Cultural Context
	14.5 Conclusion
	Appendix
	References
15 Intellectual Disabilities
	15.1 Overview
	15.2 Definition
		15.2.1 Etiology
		15.2.2 Characteristics of Intellectual Disabilities
	15.3 Identification of ID
	15.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment
		15.4.1 Dual Deficit in IQ and Adaptive Behavior
		15.4.2 Tests of Intelligence
			15.4.2.1 Avoid Rigid Cut Score Application
			15.4.2.2 IQ Test Selection: Psychometric Considerations
			15.4.2.3 Administer a Second IQ Test?
		15.4.3 Adaptive Behavior
		15.4.4 Consider Comorbidity and Rule Out Selected Disorders
	15.5 Conclusion
	Appendix
	References
16 Other Health Impaired
	16.1 Overview
	16.2 Definition
	16.3 Identification
	16.4 General Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment of OHI
		16.4.1 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
		16.4.2 Other Health Conditions
	16.5 Conclusion
	Case Background Information
	Appendix: Sample Report 1—Qualify Without Outside Diagnosis of ADHD
	References
17 Miscellaneous IDEA Categories and Section 504
	17.1 Overview
	17.2 Section 504
		17.2.1 Definition
		17.2.2 Identification and Psychoeducational Assessment
		17.2.3 Conclusion
	17.3 Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
		17.3.1 Overview
		17.3.2 Definition
		17.3.3 Correlates of TBI
		17.3.4 Guidance Regarding Psychoeducational Assessment
		17.3.5 Conclusion
	17.4 Visual Impairment/Blindness
		17.4.1 Overview
		17.4.2 Definition
		17.4.3 Identification and Psychoeducational Assessment Considerations
		17.4.4 Conclusion
	17.5 Hearing Loss and Deafness
		17.5.1 Overview
		17.5.2 Definition
		17.5.3 Degree of Hearing Loss
		17.5.4 Identification and Psychoeducational Assessment Considerations
		17.5.5 Conclusion
	17.6 Orthopedic Impairment
		17.6.1 Overview
		17.6.2 Definition
		17.6.3 Psychoeducational Assessment Considerations
		17.6.4 Conclusion
	Appendix
	References
Part IV Oral Reporting and Miscellaneous Topics in Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing
18 Assessment and Identification of Gifted Youth
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Conceptualizations of Giftedness
	18.3 Prevalence Rates
	18.4 How Do States Define and Identify Giftedness?
	18.5 Guiding Concepts for Assessment and Report Writing
		18.5.1 Demographics, Reason for Referral, Relevant Background Data
		18.5.2 Parent/Teacher Report
		18.5.3 Cognitive Ability
		18.5.4 Academic Achievement
		18.5.5 Rule Out Considerations: ELL, ED, Health Concerns, SLD, Dually Exceptional Student Discussion
	18.6 Conclusion
	Appendix
	References
19 The Use of Curriculum-Based Measures/Response to Intervention Within the Context of Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Curriculum-Based Assessment and Curriculum-Based Measurement Approaches to Assessment
	19.3 Curriculum-Based Measurement
		19.3.1 Curriculum-Based Measures of Reading
			19.3.1.1 Oral Reading Fluency
			19.3.1.2 Comprehension
			19.3.1.3 Early Literacy
		19.3.2 Curriculum-Based Measures of Mathematics
			19.3.2.1 Computational Fluency
			19.3.2.2 Concepts/Application
		19.3.3 Curriculum-Based Measures of Writing
			19.3.3.1 Total Words Written
			19.3.3.2 Correct Word Sequences
			19.3.3.3 Emerging Technologies
	19.4 The Role of Curriculum-Based Measurement in Specific Learning Disabilities Eligibility Decision-Making
		19.4.1 Response to Intervention
			19.4.1.1 Data Display and Visual Analysis of Curriculum-Based Measurement in Response to Intervention Models
			19.4.1.2 Responders Versus Non-responders to Intervention
			19.4.1.3 Specific Learning Disabilities Eligibility and Reporting
	19.5 Evidence-Based Practice and Fidelity
	19.6 Summary
	Appendix
	References
20 Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners
	20.1 Overview
	20.2 General Concepts
		20.2.1 Pre-referral Bias
		20.2.2 Assessment Bias
		20.2.3 Translations and Interpreters
		20.2.4 Practical Considerations on the Use of Translators and Interpreters
		20.2.5 Bilingual Special Education Interface
	20.3 Ethical and Legal Considerations
		20.3.1 Sensory Issues
		20.3.2 Diagnostic Issues
		20.3.3 Environmental Issues
	20.4 Nondiscriminatory Assessment of Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Students
		20.4.1 Choosing Tests that Are not Discriminatory
		20.4.2 Choosing Tests Provided in a Child’s Native Language or Other Mode
	20.5 Additional Concerns
	20.6 Conclusion
	References
21 Oral Reporting
	21.1 Overview
	21.2 Format and Meeting Participants
	21.3 General Framework for the Feedback Conference
		21.3.1 How to Start the Conference
		21.3.2 Brief Description of Evaluation Process
		21.3.3 Presentation of the Classification Conclusion
		21.3.4 Address Any Questions or Concerns
		21.3.5 Discuss the Major Domains Addressed by the Assessment Including a Strength-Based Assessment, Integrate the Findings, and Discuss the Rationale for Your Conclusion
			21.3.5.1 Cognitive and Academic
			21.3.5.2 Social-Emotional and Behavioral
		21.3.6 Integrate Findings and Reiterate the Rationale for Your Conclusion
		21.3.7 Discuss Recommendations
	21.4 Case Examples
		21.4.1 Case Example 1: The Unexpected Response
		21.4.2 Case 2: The Caregiver in Denial
		21.4.3 Case 3: The Appreciative Caregiver
	21.5 General Oral Reporting Guidelines
		21.5.1 Facilitate the Meeting and Engage All Appropriate Participants
		21.5.2 Team Decision
		21.5.3 Avoid Pedantic Psychobabble
		21.5.4 Expect the Unexpected
		21.5.5 Pressure or Negotiation for a Classification
		21.5.6 Be Empathetic but Maintain Boundaries
		21.5.7 Be Prepared
		21.5.8 Be Direct but Gentle
		21.5.9 Speak Slowly and Permit Time for Caregivers to Process information and Ask Questions
	21.6 Conclusion
22 Special Issues in Psychoeducational Assessment and Report Writing
	22.1 Overview
	22.2 Applicable General Ethical Principles and Test Standards
		22.2.1 Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
		22.2.2 Respect for Rights and Dignity of Individuals
		22.2.3 Competence
		22.2.4 Engage in Empirically Validated Practices
		22.2.5 Conflict Between the Law and Ethical Standards
		22.2.6 Confidentiality and Maintenance of Records
		22.2.7 Limits to Confidence
		22.2.8 Consent for Assessment
		22.2.9 Consent to Share Records
		22.2.10 Report Security
		22.2.11 Release of Test Protocols
		22.2.12 Maintenance of Records
	22.3 General Assessment and Report Writing Principles
		22.3.1 Avoid the Use of Age and Grade Equivalent Scores
		22.3.2 Know Points on the Normal Curve
		22.3.3 Evidence-Based Test Use and Interpretation
		22.3.4 Avoid the Discrepancy Approach
		22.3.5 Adhere to Standardized Directions
		22.3.6 Report Test Scores, but Do Not Overemphasize Numbers
		22.3.7 Fully Complete Test Protocols
		22.3.8 Pressure or Negotiation for a Classification
		22.3.9 No Classification, Now What?
		22.3.10 Use of New Instruments
		22.3.11 Old Versus New Instruments
		22.3.12 Consider Culture and Language
	22.4 Conclusion
	References
Index