Proteins in Food Processing

wp2555_fm.pdf......Page 1
Starch in food: Structure, function and applications......Page 3
Contents......Page 5
Contributor contact details......Page 12
WP2555_CH01.pdf......Page 16
1.1.1 Leaf starch......Page 17
Table of Contents......Page 0
1.1.2 Starch in storage tissues......Page 18
1.2.1 Enzyme reactions of starch synthesis......Page 19
1.3.1 Structure-function relationships......Page 20
1.3.2 Chemical modification of ligand binding sites of substrates and effectors......Page 21
1.3.4 Comparison of ADPGlc Ppase sequences......Page 27
1.3.5 Prediction of the two-dimensional structure of the ADPGlc Ppase subunits......Page 29
1.4.1 Enzyme properties......Page 32
1.4.2 Identification of the waxy locus as the structural gene for the granule bound starch synthase......Page 33
1.4.3 The wx protein is a starch synthase......Page 34
1.4.4 Characterization of the soluble starch synthases......Page 36
1.4.5 Cloning of the soluble starch synthases......Page 37
1.4.6 Soluble starch synthase II mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii......Page 38
1.5.1 Purification and characterization of the branching enzyme isozymes......Page 39
1.5.2 Genetic studies on branching enzyme deficient mutants......Page 42
1.5.5 Reserve tissue branching enzyme is localized in the plastid......Page 44
1.5.7 Amino acid residues that are functional in branching enzyme catalysis......Page 45
1.7 Locating starch synthesis in plants: the plastid......Page 47
1.8 In vivo synthesis of amylopectin......Page 51
1.9 Regulating starch synthesis in plants......Page 55
1.9.1 Effect of activators on inhibition and substrate kinetics......Page 56
1.9.2 In vivo evidence in support of the ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase activator-inhibitor interaction regulating starch synthesis......Page 57
1.10 References......Page 63
2.1 Introduction: characterising structures of starch components......Page 71
2.2 Fractionation of starch......Page 73
2.3 Analysis of amylose......Page 74
2.3.1 Amylose content of starch......Page 75
2.3.2 Structural analysis of amylose......Page 76
2.4 Analysis of amylopectin structure......Page 78
2.4.1 Unit chain length and distribution......Page 79
2.4.2 External chain length and internal chain distribution......Page 82
2.4.3 Analysis of units of clusters......Page 85
2.4.4 Starch phosphate esters......Page 87
2.5 Analysis of intermediate materials......Page 89
2.6 Analysis of chemically modified starches......Page 91
2.7 Future trends......Page 93
2.9 References......Page 95
3.1 Introduction: the importance of starch......Page 111
3.1.1 The structure and assembly of starch granules......Page 112
3.2.1 Genetic technologies......Page 113
3.2.2 Analytical technologies for starch structural profiling......Page 115
3.3 Improving starch yield and structure......Page 116
3.3.1 Engineering starch yield......Page 117
3.3.2 Engineering chain elongation......Page 120
3.3.4 Engineering chain debranching and disproportionation......Page 122
3.3.5 Engineering chain phosphate substitution......Page 123
3.3.6 Engineering starch molecular mass......Page 124
3.4 Physical and chemical properties of modified starches......Page 125
3.5 Functionality and uses of modified starches in food processing......Page 126
3.6 Ensuring successful modification of starch......Page 128
3.7 Future trends......Page 131
3.8 References......Page 133
4.1 Introduction: the importance of enzymes......Page 142
4.2.1 Starch hydrolysing enzymes......Page 145
4.2.2 Overview of properties and applications of SHPs......Page 147
4.2.3 Starch granule degrading enzymes......Page 150
4.2.4 Starch transferases......Page 151
4.2.5 Starch lyases......Page 153
4.2.6 Trehalose and non-reducing oligosaccharide synthesis from starch......Page 154
4.3.2 Genome mining: the exploitation of complete genome sequences......Page 155
4.4 Future trends......Page 162
4.5 References......Page 163
5.1 Introduction: overview of packing at different lengthscales......Page 170
5.2 The effect of amylopectin chain architecture on packing......Page 175
5.3.1 Annealing......Page 179
5.3.2 Plasticisation......Page 180
5.4 The gelatinisation process......Page 183
5.4.1 The sequence of plasticisation and gelatinisation and the role of solutes......Page 185
5.5.1 Milling......Page 188
5.5.2 Amylolysis and hydrolysis......Page 189
5.6 Conclusions and future trends......Page 191
5.8 References......Page 192
6.1.2 Regulations......Page 199
6.2 Sample preparation......Page 200
6.3 Methods of analysing starch in food......Page 202
6.3.1 Classical methods......Page 203
6.3.2 Modern methods......Page 204
6.4 Determining starch in food: recent technological developments......Page 212
6.5 Future trends......Page 215
6.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 217
6.7 References......Page 218
WP2555_CH07.pdf......Page 222
7.1 Introduction: manufacture of wheat starch for the food industry......Page 223
7.1.2 The batter process......Page 224
7.2.1 Granular structure......Page 225
7.2.2 Molecular structures of the major wheat starch components......Page 227
7.3.1 Granules......Page 230
7.3.3 Pastes......Page 231
7.4 Rheological properties of starch pastes and gels......Page 233
7.4.2 Physicochemical aspects of pastes and gels......Page 234
7.4.4 Properties of amylose compared with amylopectin......Page 235
7.5.1 Improving the functionality of wheat starch......Page 237
7.5.2 Chemical modification of starch......Page 238
7.6 Wheat starch syrups......Page 243
7.6.1 Syrups from acidic hydrolysis......Page 244
7.7.1 Starches......Page 246
7.7.2 Starch syrups......Page 247
7.9.1 Journals on starch research......Page 248
7.9.5 Starch on the www......Page 249
7.10 References......Page 250
8.1 Introduction......Page 253
8.2.1 Impurities of potato starch......Page 254
8.2.3 Rheology of aqueous dispersions......Page 255
8.3 Techniques for producing potato starch......Page 257
8.4.1 General aspects......Page 258
8.4.2 Chemically modified potato starches......Page 259
8.4.3 Physically modified potato starches......Page 263
8.5.1 Contribution by conventional breeding......Page 264
8.5.3 Bio potato starch......Page 265
8.6 References......Page 266
9.1 Introduction......Page 270
9.2 Rice flour and starch as food ingredient......Page 272
9.3 Constituents of rice starch......Page 273
9.4 Structure and functionality of rice starch......Page 274
9.4.2 Starch crystallinity......Page 275
9.4.3 Amylose......Page 277
9.4.4 Amylopectin......Page 278
9.4.5 Swelling power and solubility......Page 281
9.5 Gelatinization and the structure of rice starch......Page 283
9.5.1 Gelatinization: pasting properties......Page 286
9.5.2 Gelatinization: rheological properties......Page 289
9.6 Retrogradation and other properties of rice starch......Page 291
9.6.1 Clarity......Page 293
9.6.3 Digestibility......Page 294
9.7.1 Chemical modification of rice starch......Page 295
9.7.2 Physical modification of rice starch......Page 297
9.7.3 Genetic modification of rice starch......Page 298
9.8 Future trends......Page 299
9.9.2 Industries......Page 300
9.10 References......Page 301
10.1 Introduction: the use of corn starch in food processing......Page 307
10.1.1 Intermediate materials in corn starch......Page 308
10.1.2 Role of the environment on corn starch characteristics......Page 309
10.2 Improving the functionality of corn starch for food processing applications: natural corn endosperm mutants......Page 310
10.2.2 The amylose extender (ae) mutation......Page 311
10.2.3 The du mutation......Page 312
10.2.5 The su1 mutation......Page 313
10.2.6 Comparisons of starch fractionation methods and functionality among mutant corn types in the same genetic background......Page 315
10.2.7 Influence of genetic background on functional properties......Page 316
10.3.1 Succinylation......Page 317
10.3.2 Acetylation......Page 318
10.3.3 Hydroxypropylation......Page 319
10.3.4 Phosphorylation......Page 321
10.3.5 Cross-linking......Page 322
10.4 Genetically modifying corn starches for use in the food industry......Page 323
10.7 References......Page 326
11.1.1 Tree crops......Page 333
11.1.2 Cereals......Page 334
11.1.4 Pulses......Page 335
11.1.5 Tropical root crops......Page 336
11.2 Characteristics and properties of cassava starch......Page 338
11.3 Characteristics and properties of sweet potato starch......Page 346
11.4 Characteristics and properties of yam and aroid starches......Page 348
11.5.1 Arrowroot......Page 353
11.5.9 Oca......Page 354
11.5.13 Breadfruit......Page 355
11.5.16 Amaranthus......Page 357
11.5.20 Quinoa......Page 358
11.5.23 Tef......Page 359
11.5.27 Chick pea, cow pea and horse gram......Page 360
11.5.30 Velvet bean......Page 361
11.6.1 Cassava starch......Page 362
11.6.2 Chemical derivatisation......Page 363
11.6.4 Modification of other starches......Page 364
11.8 References......Page 365
WP2555_CH12.pdf......Page 372
12.2.1 Sources......Page 373
12.2.3 Processing......Page 376
12.3.2 Starch granule......Page 378
12.3.3 Hydrogen bonding......Page 379
12.4.1 Cross-linking......Page 380
12.4.3 Conversions......Page 381
12.4.5 Pregelatinisation......Page 383
12.5.1 Structure±function relationship......Page 384
12.5.2 Nutrition......Page 386
12.6.1 Starch selection......Page 389
12.6.2 Applications......Page 392
12.7 Regulatory status: European label declarations......Page 400
12.9 Bibliography......Page 402
13.1 Introduction......Page 403
13.2 Components of starch......Page 404
13.2.3 Minor constituents......Page 405
13.3.1 Native or common starches (natural)......Page 406
13.4 Methods of starch selection......Page 409
13.4.3 What is the food system pH?......Page 410
13.4.7 Is the finished product subjected to post processing? The knowledge of what is going to happen to the finished food is c......Page 411
13.5.1 Temperature......Page 412
13.5.3 Packaging......Page 415
13.5.6 Sweeteners......Page 416
13.5.7 Salts......Page 417
13.5.9 Proteins and other starches......Page 418
13.6.1 Thermal processing (canned-jarred; retorted-sterilized-hot filled)......Page 419
13.6.2 Frozen......Page 420
13.6.3 Instant products (soups, sauces and gravies)......Page 421
13.6.5 Snack foods......Page 422
13.6.6 Dressings, sauces, gravies and other condiments......Page 423
13.6.7 Bakery products......Page 424
13.6.8 Pet products......Page 425
13.6.9 Meat products......Page 426
13.6.10 Cereals, pasta, bars and related products......Page 427
13.6.11 Confections (candy)......Page 428
13.6.12 Dairy and related products......Page 429
13.6.14 Emulsification and encapsulation ± beverages......Page 430
13.7 References......Page 433
14.1 Introduction......Page 435
14.2.2 Solute effects and freeze-concentration......Page 436
14.2.3 Chemical and physical stability......Page 439
14.3.1 Polysaccharide stabilizers ± functionality and use......Page 442
14.3.2 Effect of freezing on native starch......Page 443
14.3.3 Freeze-thaw stable modified starches......Page 444
14.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 446
14.6 References......Page 447
15.2 The structure and properties of the starch-lipid complex......Page 451
15.2.1 Helix structure......Page 452
15.2.2 Properties of the starch-lipid complex......Page 453
15.2.3 Formation of the starch-lipid complex......Page 454
15.2.4 Factors that will influence the character and behaviour of the starch-lipid complex......Page 457
15.3 Analysis of starch: lipids and emulsifiers......Page 458
15.3.1 Lipids in native starch......Page 459
15.4 The effects of lipids on starch behaviour......Page 460
15.4.2 Amylose leaching and granule swelling......Page 461
15.4.4 Starch retrogradation......Page 462
15.5 Enzymatic degradation of amylose-lipid complexes......Page 463
15.7 References......Page 464
16.1 Introduction: using microencapsulation in food processin......Page 471
16.2.1 The use of starch hydrolysis products......Page 474
16.2.2 The use of starch derivatives......Page 477
16.2.3 Potential use of starch polymers and granules......Page 478
16.3 Starch-based shell matrices for food ingredients......Page 479
16.4 Future trends......Page 480
16.5 References......Page 481
WP2555_CH17.pdf......Page 484
17.1 Introduction......Page 485
17.1.1 Classification of carbohydrate foods according to their nutritional properties......Page 486
17.2 Characteristics and properties of starch and starchy foods......Page 489
17.2.1 Starch sources and starch granules......Page 490
17.2.3 Starch gel and retrograded starch......Page 491
17.2.5 Food processing, digestible starch fractions and glycaemic responses......Page 492
17.2.6 Low GI food: the role of simple sugars and other factors......Page 494
17.2.7 In vitro methods......Page 495
17.3 Low GI diets and their associated health benefits......Page 496
17.3.1 Low GI diet and diabetes mellitus......Page 497
17.3.2 Low GI diet, weight and obesity control......Page 498
17.3.4 GI and physical exercise......Page 499
17.3.5 GI and cognitive performance......Page 500
17.4.1 Applications......Page 502
17.4.2 Scientific nutritional dossier......Page 504
17.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 506
17.7 Acknowledgements......Page 507
17.8 References......Page 508
18.1.1 What is physical performance, how can it be measured?......Page 513
18.1.2 What is mental performance, and how can it be measured?......Page 514
18.2.2 Carbohydrate±fat±protein interactions in energy delivery......Page 515
18.2.3 Carbohydrate reserves: a limited stock......Page 518
18.2.5 Carbohydrate ingestion before, during and after exercise......Page 520
18.2.7 Carbohydrate availability affects performance......Page 523
18.2.9 Carbohydrate-protein ratio and serotoninergic function......Page 525
18.3.1 Effects of glucose on cognition......Page 526
18.3.2 Hypoglycaemia and mental performance......Page 527
18.3.4 Insulin......Page 528
18.3.6 Cognitive demand......Page 529
18.3.7 Glucose tolerance......Page 530
18.4.3 Direct comparisons of pure carbohydrate......Page 531
18.4.4 Tryptophan, 5-HT and mental performance......Page 532
18.4.5 Carbohydrate and protein manipulations......Page 533
18.4.7 Performance and the GI of foods......Page 534
18.4.8 Effects of GI on cognitive performance......Page 535
18.4.9 Effect of palatability on performance......Page 536
18.4.11 Effect of CHO at breakfast......Page 537
18.4.14 Effects of CHO in the evening......Page 538
18.5 Future trends......Page 539
18.6 References......Page 540
19.1.1 Dietary carbohydrate classification......Page 549
19.1.2 Carbohydrate bioavailability......Page 551
19.2.1 Methodological considerations......Page 552
19.2.2 Reagents......Page 554
19.2.3 Apparatus......Page 555
19.2.5 Main procedure......Page 556
19.2.7 HPLC analysis of sugars......Page 557
19.2.9 Measurement of RS1, RS2 and RS3......Page 558
19.3.1 Quality control......Page 559
19.3.2 Troubleshooting......Page 560
19.5 Conclusion and future trends......Page 561
19.5.1 Basis for carbohydrate bioavailability approach......Page 562
19.5.2 Relation between the in vitro carbohydrate bioavailabilty measures and glycemic index......Page 563
19.5.3 Contribution to carbohydrate quality concept......Page 564
19.7 References......Page 565
20.1 Introduction......Page 568
20.2.1 Fate of RS in the digestive tract......Page 570
20.2.2 Effects on stool weight and bowel transit time......Page 571
20.2.4 Interest of RS in prevention and treatment of colonic pathologies......Page 572
20.3.1 Optimisation of RS properties according to its use......Page 575
20.3.2 Nutri- and techno-functional properties of RS ± is it possible to meet both types of requirements for optimal properties?......Page 576
20.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 579
20.6 References......Page 580
21.2.1 Regulation of plasma glucose......Page 583
21.2.2 Hyperglycemia and patients at risk......Page 584
21.2.3 Hypoglycemia and patients at risk......Page 585
21.3.2 Absorption......Page 586
21.3.4 Gastrointestinal hormones......Page 587
21.3.5 Food characteristics......Page 588
21.4.2 In vivo approaches......Page 589
21.5.1 Uncooked cornstarch and prevention of hypoglycemia......Page 591
21.5.3 Glycemic index and prevention of hyperglycemia......Page 592
21.5.4 Fiber and prevention of hyperglycemia......Page 593
21.6.3 Stimulating secretion of gastrointestinal hormones......Page 594
21.8 References......Page 595