Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products 122: Botanical Dietary Supplements and Herbal Medicines

Preface
Contents
Contributors
Phytochemical Profiles and Biological Studies of Selected Botanical Dietary Supplements Used in the United States
	1 Introduction
	2 Overview of Botanical Dietary Supplements Used in the United States
	3 Chemotaxonomy of Botanicals Used as Dietary Supplements
	4 Phytochemical Studies on Selected Botanicals
		4.1 Actaea racemosa
		4.2 Allium sativum
		4.3 Aloe vera
		4.4 Cinnamomum spp. (Cinnamomum verum)
		4.5 Citrus aurantium
		4.6 Crataegus spp.
		4.7 Curcuma longa
		4.8 Echinacea spp.
		4.9 Epimedium spp.
		4.10 Euterpe oleracea
		4.11 Garcinia gummi-gutta
		4.12 Ginkgo biloba
		4.13 Hypericum perforatum
		4.14 Lepidium meyenii
		4.15 Linum usitatissimum
		4.16 Lycium spp.
		4.17 Marrubium vulgare
		4.18 Matricaria chamomilla
		4.19 Momordica charantia
		4.20 Nigella sativa
		4.21 Oryza sativa
		4.22 Panax spp.
		4.23 Pausinystalia johimbe
		4.24 Sambucus nigra and S. canadensis
		4.25 Serenoa repens
		4.26 Silybum marianum
		4.27 Trigonella foenum-graecum
		4.28 Vaccinium macrocarpon
		4.29 Valeriana officinalis
		4.30 Withania somnifera
		4.31 Zingiber officinale
	5 Biological Evaluation in Validation of Use
		5.1 Actaea racemosa
		5.2 Allium sativum
		5.3 Aloe vera
		5.4 Cinnamomum spp. (Cinnamomum verum)
		5.5 Citrus aurantium
		5.6 Crataegus spp.
		5.7 Curcuma longa
		5.8 Echinacea spp.
		5.9 Epimedium spp.
		5.10 Euterpe oleracea
		5.11 Garcinia gummi-gutta
		5.12 Ginkgo biloba
		5.13 Hypericum perforatum
		5.14 Lepidium meyenii
		5.15 Linum usitatissimum
		5.16 Lycium spp.
		5.17 Marrubium vulgare
		5.18 Matricaria chamomilla
		5.19 Momordica charantia
		5.20 Nigella sativa
		5.21 Oryza sativa
		5.22 Panax spp.
		5.23 Pausinystalia johimbe
		5.24 Sambucus nigra and S. canadensis
		5.25 Serenoa repens
		5.26 Silybum marianum
		5.27 Trigonella foenum-graecum
		5.28 Vaccinium macrocarpon
		5.29 Valeriana officinalis
		5.30 Withania somnifera
		5.31 Zingiber officinale
	6 Future Perspectives
	7 Conclusions
	References
Quality Consistency of Herbal Products: Chemical Evaluation
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Limitations of Morphological or Microscopic Analysis in the Evaluation of Herb Quality Consistency
		1.2 Limitations of DNA Barcoding Analysis in the Evaluation of Herb Quality Consistency
	2 Chemical Evaluation of Herb Quality Consistency
		2.1 Factors Responsible for Variation of the Chemical Composition of Herbal Products
		2.2 Chemical Markers
		2.3 Roles of Chemical Evaluation in the Management of Herb Quality Consistency
		2.4 Major Objectives of Chemical Evaluation
	3 Methods of Instrumental Chemical Evaluation
		3.1 Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
		3.2 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
		3.3 Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
		3.4 High-Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography
	4 Conclusions
	References
Nomenclature: Herbal Taxonomy in the Global Commerce of Botanicals
	1 Introduction
	2 Nomenclatural Systems
		2.1 Common Names
		2.2 Latinized Binomials
		2.3 Galenic Names
	3 Challenges with Using Botanical Type Specimens, Vouchers, and Genetics for Medicinal Plants
	4 Academic Specificity Versus Global Reality: Saffron—A Case History
	5 Authenticity Versus Botanical Specificity
	6 Multiple Species-Single Medicinal Agent
	7 The Role of Modern Pharmacognosy in Medicinal Plant Authentication
	8 Traditional Herbal Medicines—Emphasis on Classical Botanical Pharmacognosy
	9 Pharmacopeial Definitions—The Gold Standard for Botanical Ingredient Authenticity and Quality
	10 Botanical Reference Materials
	11 Summary
	References
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Barcoding for the Identification of Botanicals
	1 Introduction
		1.1 Definitions of Gene, Genomic Region, and Loci
		1.2 Nucleotide Polymorphism Can Become Diagnostic Sequences
	2 Polymerase Chain Reaction
		2.1 Gel Analysis: Agarose and Polyacrylamide
	3 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Dyes
	4 Primers
	5 Polymerase Chain Reaction Methods
		5.1 Simple Sequence Repeats, Microsatellites, Short Tandem Repeats, and Random Amplification of Polymorphic Deoxyribonucleic Acid
		5.2 Sequence Characterized Amplified Region Marker
		5.3 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms, Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism, and Cleaved Amplified Polymorphic Sequence
		5.4 Amplification Refractory Mutation System
		5.5 High-Resolution Melt Analysis, Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction, and Quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction
		5.6 Start Codon Targeted Polymorphism
	6 Genomic Regions for Botanical Identification
	7 Sequencing Methods
		7.1 Sanger Sequencing
		7.2 Second- or Next-Generation Sequencing
		7.3 Third- and Fourth-Generation Sequencing
		7.4 Amplicon Metabarcoding and Whole Genome Sequencing
	8 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Quality and Quantity
	9 Barcoding of Fragmented DNA
	10 Deoxyribonucleic Acid Databases
	11 Conclusions
	References