Produce Degradation: Pathways and Prevention

Front cover......Page 1
Preface......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Contributors......Page 10
Editors......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 16
1.2.1 Whole Genome Sequencing......Page 18
1.2.3 Sequences from rrn Operons......Page 21
1.2.4 Other Genes......Page 22
1.3.1 DNA-DNA Homology......Page 24
1.3.2 Random Genome Sampling......Page 25
1.3.3 Genomic Subtraction......Page 27
References......Page 29
Role of Cuticles in Produce Quality and Preservation......Page 34
2.2 General Structure and Composition of Plant Cuticles......Page 35
2.2.2.1 Cutin......Page 36
2.3.1 Cuticular Growth and Development......Page 39
2.3.2 Variability in Cuticle Structure and Composition......Page 40
2.4.1 Barrier to Liquids and Gases......Page 41
2.4.2 Barrier to Pathogens......Page 44
2.5 Role of Cuticle in Host/Pathogen Response......Page 45
2.6 Role of Cuticle on Mechanical Properties Related to Quality......Page 47
2.7 Role of Cuticle in Aesthetic Quality......Page 48
2.8.1 Chilling Injury......Page 49
2.8.4 Scald......Page 50
2.8.5.1 Cherry......Page 51
2.8.5.2 Apple......Page 56
2.8.5.4 Other Produce......Page 58
2.9 Summary......Page 60
References......Page 61
3.1 Introduction......Page 70
3.2.1 Texture......Page 71
3.2.2 Flavor......Page 74
3.2.3 Nutritional quality......Page 76
3.2.4 Shelf life......Page 77
3.3.2.1 Ethylene......Page 78
3.3.2.3 Gibberellic Acid......Page 80
3.3.2.5 1-Methylcyclopropene......Page 81
3.4.1 Nonclimacteric fruits and vegetables......Page 82
3.5 Quality Deterioration Management Through Maturity/Ripeness Selection......Page 84
3.6 Summary......Page 86
References......Page 87
4.1 Introduction......Page 94
4.2 Wound Response......Page 95
4.3.1 Wound Severity......Page 98
4.3.2 Mechanical Handling......Page 100
4.5 Harvesting......Page 101
4.6 Storage......Page 104
4.7 Detection......Page 106
4.8.1 Respiration......Page 107
4.8.2 Ethylene......Page 108
4.8.3 Phenolic Compounds......Page 109
4.9 Enzymatic Effects......Page 110
4.10 Texture......Page 114
4.11 Temperature Effect......Page 115
References......Page 118
Packaging and Produce Degradation......Page 132
5.2.1 Respiration Rates......Page 133
5.2.1.1 How to Measure Respiration Rates......Page 135
5.2.1.2 Influence of Temperature......Page 136
5.2.1.3 Influence of Gas Composition on Respiration Rate and Physiological Disorders......Page 137
5.2.1.4 Influence of Other Parameters......Page 140
5.2.2.1 Determination Procedure (Controlled Atmosphere)......Page 142
5.2.2.2 Effect of Gas on Ethylene Biosynthesis and Action......Page 143
5.2.2.3 Effect of Other Gases......Page 144
5.2.2.4 Effect of Gas on Microorganisms......Page 145
5.2.2.5 Effect of Gas on Quality Attributes......Page 148
5.3.1 Modified Atmosphere Packaging......Page 156
5.3.3 Simulation of Modified Atmospheres......Page 158
5.4 Conclusion......Page 159
5.4.2 Consumer Acceptance of Appearance and Handling......Page 160
References......Page 161
Flavor and Volatile Metabolism in Produce......Page 170
6.1 Introduction......Page 171
6.2.3 Aroma Biogenesis......Page 172
6.2.3.1 Esters......Page 173
6.2.3.4 Norisoprenoids......Page 174
6.2.3.6 Sulfur-Containing Compounds......Page 175
6.3 Fruit and Vegetable Flavor Systems......Page 176
6.3.1.2 Stone Fruit......Page 177
6.3.1.5 Small Fruit......Page 178
6.3.1.6 Citrus......Page 179
6.3.1.7 Tropical Fruit......Page 181
6.3.2.4 Bell Pepper......Page 182
6.4 Factors Influencing Flavor and Flavor Stability......Page 183
6.4.2 Ethylene......Page 184
6.4.3 Controlled and Modified Atmospheric Storage......Page 185
6.4.3.1 MAP of Fresh-Cut Fruits and Vegetables......Page 186
6.4.6 Curing......Page 187
6.4.8.1 Anaerobiosis and Off-flavor Development......Page 188
6.4.8.3 Sanitizers and Chemical Treatments......Page 189
References......Page 190
7.1 Importance of Produce Appearance......Page 206
7.2 Carotenoids......Page 207
7.2.1 Chemical Definition and Structure......Page 208
7.2.2 Occurrence and Biosynthesis......Page 209
7.2.3 Postharvest Degradation......Page 210
7.2.4 Progress in Analytical Methodology......Page 212
7.3.1 Chemical Definition and Structure......Page 213
7.3.2 Degradation of Chlorophylls During Senescence, Storage, and Processing......Page 214
7.4.1 Chemical Definition and Structure......Page 215
7.4.2 Chemical Properties and Occurrence of Anthocyanins......Page 217
7.4.3 Postharvest and Processing Changes of Anthocyanins......Page 221
7.4.4 Progress in Analytical Methodology......Page 222
7.4.5 Occurrence and Antioxidant Properties of Flavonoids......Page 223
7.4.6 Postharvest and Processing Changes of Flavonoids......Page 225
7.5.1 Chemical Definition and Structure......Page 227
7.5.2 Chemical Changes During Processing and Storage......Page 228
References......Page 230
Nutrient Loss......Page 238
8.1 Introduction......Page 239
8.2 Overview of Nutritional Value of Produce......Page 240
8.2.1.2 Proteins......Page 241
8.2.1.3 Carbohydrates......Page 242
8.2.2 Micronutrients......Page 243
8.2.2.2 Vitamins......Page 244
8.3.1 Flavor Compounds......Page 245
8.3.3 Phytonutrients......Page 246
8.6.1 Preharvest......Page 249
8.6.3 Transportation......Page 250
8.6.6 Packaging......Page 251
8.7.1 Maturity and Ripeness......Page 252
8.7.2.1 Temperature and Relative Humidity......Page 253
8.7.2.2 Packaging......Page 254
8.8.1 Proteins......Page 255
8.8.3 Lipids......Page 256
8.8.5 Pigmentation......Page 257
8.9.1 Preharvest Treatment......Page 258
8.9.2.1 Heat Treatments......Page 259
8.9.3 Chilling Treatments......Page 262
8.10 Nutritional Implications of Produce Processing......Page 263
8.10.2 Refrigeration and Freezing......Page 265
8.10.3 Dehydration......Page 266
8.10.4.1 Lactic Acid Fermentation......Page 267
8.10.4.2 Acetic Acid Fermentation......Page 268
8.10.5 Probiotics......Page 269
8.10.6 Use of Additives......Page 271
8.10.7 Radurization......Page 272
8.11 Summary......Page 273
References......Page 274
Water and Its Relation to Fresh Produce......Page 282
9.1 Introduction......Page 283
9.2.2 Properties of Water......Page 284
9.3.1 Diffusion, Bulk/Mass Flow, and Osmotic Movement of Water......Page 286
9.4 Water Migration in Plant Tissues......Page 287
9.5.1 Temperature......Page 289
9.5.3 Pressure, Air Movement, and Light......Page 291
9.6 Effect of Injury on Water Loss......Page 292
9.7 Methods of Preventing Water Loss from Fresh Produce......Page 293
9.7.1 Temperature......Page 294
9.7.1.1 Cooling of Harvested Fresh Produce......Page 295
9.7.2 Elevated Relative Humidity......Page 296
9.7.3 Packaging of Fresh Produce......Page 297
9.7.4 Waxing of Fresh Produce......Page 298
9.7.5 Processing Treatments......Page 299
9.8 Water Loss and Its Impact on Produce Quality......Page 300
9.8.2 Texture......Page 301
References......Page 302
Mechanisms of Food Additives, Treatments, and Preservation Technology......Page 308
10.1.1.2 Temperature Injuries (Chilling, Freezing, and High-Temperature Injury)......Page 309
10.1.2 Enzymatic Changes......Page 311
10.1.2.1 Important Enzymes......Page 313
10.1.3 Chemical Changes......Page 314
10.1.4 Microbiological Changes......Page 317
10.2.1.1 Temperature......Page 319
10.2.1.2 Atmosphere......Page 320
10.2.1.3 Humidity......Page 322
10.2.1.5 Mechanical Wounding......Page 323
10.2.3.1 Application of Additives......Page 325
10.2.2.2 Blanching......Page 329
10.2.3.1 Removal of Microorganisms from Food Products......Page 332
10.2.3.2 Direct Inactivation of Microorganisms: Abiosis......Page 336
10.2.3.3 Indirect Preservation Methods: Anabiosis......Page 342
References......Page 348
Role of Pesticides in Produce Production, Preservation, Quality, and Safety......Page 356
11.2 Positive Impacts of Pesticide Use in Produce Production......Page 357
11.2.1.1 Major Classes of Insecticides and Their Modes of Action......Page 360
11.2.1.2 Problems Caused by Insects in Produce Production and Their Control by Insecticides......Page 362
11.2.2 Acaricides......Page 366
11.2.3 Nematicides......Page 367
11.2.4 Molluscicides......Page 368
11.2.5.1 Classification of Fungicides, Their Application, and Mode of Action......Page 369
11.2.5.2 Problems Caused by Fungi in Produce Production and Their Control by Fungicides......Page 372
11.2.7 Herbicides......Page 376
11.2.7.1 Classification of Herbicides, Their Application, and Mode of Action......Page 377
11.2.7.2 Herbicide Selectivity......Page 382
11.2.9 Plant Growth Regulators......Page 383
11.3 Risks Associated with Pesticides and Strategies to Reduce Them......Page 386
References......Page 388
Microbial Ecology of Spoilage......Page 394
12.1 Introduction......Page 395
12.2.1 Saprophytic Microorganisms......Page 396
12.2.4 Yeast and Mold......Page 397
12.3.1 Decay of Vegetables by Bacteria......Page 400
12.3.2.2 Intrinsic Factors......Page 401
12.3.2.3 Extrinsic Factors......Page 408
12.3.3 Microenvironments in Vegetables......Page 413
12.4.1 Antagonism......Page 414
12.4.3 Acylated Homoserine Lactone (AHL)-Based Communication......Page 415
12.5.1 Behavior of Foodborne Pathogens on Fruits and Vegetables......Page 417
12.5.3 Interactions with Epiphytic Microorganisms......Page 418
12.5.4 Cohabitation with Other Microorganisms May Affect Survival and Growth of Pathogens......Page 420
12.5.5 Behavior of Pathogens in Biofilms......Page 422
References......Page 423
13.1 Introduction......Page 436
13.2 Outbreaks of Foodborne Illness Associated with Produce......Page 437
13.3.3 Types of Spoilage Microflora......Page 438
13.3.4 Sources of Bacterial Pathogen Contamination......Page 440
13.4 Attachment of Human Bacterial Pathogens on Fruits and Vegetables......Page 441
13.4.1 Factors That Influence Bacterial Attachment......Page 442
13.4.3 Biofilm Formation on Produce Surfaces......Page 445
13.5.1 Prevention of Microbial Contamination and Degradation of Produce......Page 446
References......Page 448
Bacterial Infiltration and Internalization in Fruits and Vegetables......Page 456
14.2 Occurrence of Bacteria on Fruits And Vegetables......Page 457
14.3.1 Bacterial Adhesion......Page 458
14.3.2 Involvement of Bacterial Appendages......Page 459
14.4.1.1 Natural Openings......Page 460
14.4.1.2 Microbial Damage......Page 461
14.4.1.4 Physical Damage......Page 462
14.5 Infiltration of Bacteria in Fruits and Vegetables......Page 463
14.5.1.1 Temperature......Page 464
14.5.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure......Page 465
14.5.1.4 Type of Cooling System......Page 466
14.5.2.1 Barriers to Effective Control of Infiltration......Page 467
14.5.2.2 Prevention of Infiltration......Page 468
14.6 Survival and Growth of Internalized Bacteria......Page 470
14.8 Future Research......Page 471
References......Page 472
Mechanisms of Microbial Spoilage of Fruits and Vegetables......Page 478
15.2.1 Abiotic Spoilage and Its Relationship to Biotic Spoilage......Page 479
15.2.2 Preharvest vs. Postharvest......Page 480
15.2.3 Spoilage Organisms......Page 481
15.3.1 Plant Defenses......Page 482
15.3.2 Pathogen Attack......Page 484
15.4.1 Categories of Produce......Page 488
15.4.2.1 Leafy Produce......Page 489
15.4.2.3 Fibrous Produce......Page 490
15.4.2.4 Soft-Skinned Produce......Page 491
15.4.2.6 Berries......Page 492
15.4.3.1 Roots and Tubers......Page 493
15.4.3.3 Soft-Skinned Produce......Page 494
15.5 Conclusions and Summary......Page 495
References......Page 496
Role of Fluorescent Pseudomonads and Their Pectolytic Enzymes in Spoilage of Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce......Page 498
16.1 Introduction......Page 499
16.2.1 Physiological Diversity of PF Pseudomonads......Page 500
16.2.2 Occurrence of PF Pseudomonads on Fresh Produce......Page 501
16.3.1 Production of Pectic Enzymes and Other Depolymerases by PF Pseudomonads......Page 502
16.3.2 Description of the Erwinia Pectic Enzyme System......Page 503
16.3.4 Purification, Enzymatic Properties, and Tissue-Macerating Ability of Pseudomonas PLs......Page 504
16.4.2 Cloning and Characterization of the pel Genes from Non-Erwinia Pectolytic Bacteria......Page 505
16.4.3 Mechanisms Regulating the Production and Secretion of PL......Page 506
16.5 Interactions of PF Pseudomonads and Native Microflora on Fresh Produce......Page 507
16.6 Interactions of PF Pseudomonads and Human Pathogens on Fresh Produce......Page 508
16.7 Postharvest Treatments of Fresh Produce and Their Effects on PF Pseudomonads......Page 509
16.7.3 Chlorine......Page 510
16.7.6 Modified Atmosphere......Page 511
References......Page 512
Microbial Metabolites in Fruits and Vegetables......Page 520
17.1 Introduction......Page 521
17.2.1 Superoxide Dismutase, Catalase, and Glutathione......Page 522
17.2.2 Laccasese, Polyphenol Oxidases, and Lipoxygenase......Page 523
17.2.3 Pectinases......Page 524
17.2.4 Cellulose- and Hemicellulose-Degrading Enzymes......Page 525
17.2.5 Starch-Degrading Enzymes......Page 527
17.3.1 Microbial Metabolites That Enhance Produce Quality......Page 529
17.3.2 Microbial Metabolites and Vegetable Spoilage......Page 531
17.3.3 Microbial Metabolites and Fruit Spoilage......Page 532
17.3.4.1 Antibiotics......Page 533
17.3.4.2 Bacteriocins......Page 535
17.3.4.3 Mycotoxins......Page 536
17.4.1 Quorum Sensing......Page 537
17.4.2 Microbial Phytohormones......Page 538
References......Page 539
18.1 Introduction......Page 544
18.2 Inherent Preservation in Plant Architecture......Page 545
18.3 Textural Characteristics......Page 555
18.4 Architectural Decay and Microstructural Changes......Page 560
18.5 Cell Collapse and Degradation......Page 564
18.6 Strategies for Fruit Preservation and Improved Shelf Life......Page 568
18.7 Specific Disorders and Their Impact on Produce Quality......Page 570
References......Page 573
Structure and Function of Complex Carbohydrates in Produce and Their Degradation Process......Page 578
19.1 Introduction......Page 579
19.2.1 Starch......Page 580
19.2.2 Cellulose......Page 585
19.2.3 Hemicellulose, Pectin, and Other Interacting Cell Wall Polymers......Page 587
19.2.3.1 Pectins......Page 589
19.3 Molecular Mechanisms of Carbohydrate Degradation Mediated by Enzymes and Microbes......Page 591
19.3.1 Starch Depolymerases......Page 592
19.3.2 Cellulose Depolymerases......Page 593
19.3.3 Pectin-Degrading Enzymes......Page 594
19.4 Biochemical and Structural Changes in Produce in Response to Postharvest Stresses and Its Relationship to Carbohydrate Polymers......Page 595
19.5 Strategies to Minimize Postharvest Damage to Carbohydrates......Page 600
References......Page 602
Temperature Effects on Produce Degradation......Page 614
20.2.1 Respiratory Activity and Storage Life......Page 615
20.2.3 Moisture Loss......Page 623
20.2.4 Decay Organisms......Page 625
20.2.6 Sugar-Starch Balance......Page 626
20.3.1 Why Precool?......Page 627
20.3.2 Precooling Methods......Page 629
20.3.2.1 Cold-Air Cooling......Page 630
20.3.2.2 Hydrocooling......Page 632
20.4 Responses to Temperature Extremes......Page 633
20.4.1.1 Occurrence......Page 634
20.4.1.2 Symptoms......Page 635
20.4.1.3 Responses to Chilling Temperatures......Page 638
20.4.1.4 Treatments to Alleviate Chilling Injury......Page 644
20.4.2 Freezing Injury......Page 646
20.4.3 High Temperatures......Page 648
20.5.1 Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Yams......Page 650
20.5.2 Grapes......Page 652
20.5.4 Apples......Page 654
20.5.5 Bananas......Page 655
20.5.7 Tomatoes......Page 656
20.5.8 Fresh-Cut Produce......Page 657
References......Page 658
Index......Page 664