Process Intensification: Engineering for Efficiency, Sustainability and Flexibility

Front Cover......Page 1
Process Intensification......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Foreword......Page 16
Preface......Page 18
Acknowledgements......Page 20
Introduction......Page 28
References......Page 32
1.1 Introduction......Page 34
1.2.1 The rotating boiler/turbine concept......Page 35
1.2.2 NASA work on rotating boilers......Page 36
1.3 The rotating heat pipe......Page 39
1.3.1 Rotating air conditioning unit......Page 40
1.4 The chemical process industry – the process intensification breakthrough at ICI......Page 41
1.5.1 The Podbielniak extractor......Page 45
1.6 Reactors......Page 47
1.6.2 Polymerisation reactors......Page 49
1.6.5 Towards perfect reactors......Page 50
1.7.1.1 Liquid cooled rotating anodes......Page 52
1.7.1.2 The Audiffren Singrun (AS) machine......Page 53
1.8.2 Integration of process intensification and renewable energies......Page 54
1.8.3 PI and carbon capture......Page 55
References......Page 56
2.1 Introduction......Page 60
2.2 What is process intensification?......Page 61
2.3 The original ICI PI strategy......Page 62
2.4.1 Safety......Page 66
2.4.2 The environment......Page 68
2.4.3 Energy......Page 70
2.4.3.1 Early UK energy assessments......Page 72
2.4.3.2 Current UK strategy on PI......Page 73
2.4.3.3 A major European initiative......Page 74
2.4.4 The business process......Page 76
2.4.4.1 The PI ‘Project House’ at Degussa......Page 77
2.4.4.2 Benefits of PI for Rhodia......Page 78
2.5 Some obstacles to PI......Page 79
2.6 A way forward......Page 80
2.7 To whet the reader’s appetite......Page 81
2.8 Equipment summary – finding your way around this book......Page 82
References......Page 87
3.1 Introduction......Page 90
3.2 Intensified heat transfer – the mechanisms involved......Page 92
3.2.1 Classification of enhancement techniques......Page 94
3.2.2.1 Treated surfaces......Page 95
3.2.2.2 Extended surfaces......Page 97
3.2.2.3 Swirl flow devices......Page 98
3.2.2.4 Additives (for liquids and gases)......Page 100
3.2.2.5 Surface catalysis......Page 101
3.2.3.2 Fluid vibration......Page 102
3.2.3.3 Electrostatic fields......Page 104
3.2.3.4 Rotation......Page 105
3.2.3.5 Induced flow instabilities......Page 106
3.2.4 System impact of enhancement/intensification......Page 107
3.3.1 Rotation......Page 108
3.3.3 Mixing......Page 109
3.4 Electrically enhanced processes – the mechanisms......Page 110
3.5 Micro fluidics......Page 115
3.5.2 Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD)......Page 116
3.5.3 Opto-micro-fluidics......Page 118
3.6 Pressure......Page 119
References......Page 120
4.1 Introduction......Page 124
4.2 Compact heat exchangers......Page 126
4.2.1 The plate heat exchanger......Page 129
4.2.2 Printed circuit heat exchangers (PCHE)......Page 130
4.2.3 The Chart-flo heat exchanger......Page 134
4.2.4 Polymer film heat exchanger......Page 136
4.2.5 Foam heat exchangers......Page 138
4.2.6 Mesh heat exchangers......Page 141
4.3 Micro-heat exchangers......Page 143
4.4 What about small channels?......Page 146
4.5 Nano-fluids......Page 150
References......Page 151
5.1 Reactor engineering theory......Page 154
5.1.1 Reaction kinetics......Page 155
5.1.2 Residence time distributions (RTDs)......Page 156
5.1.3 Heat and mass transfer in reactors......Page 157
5.1.3.1 Mass transfer......Page 158
5.1.3.2 Heat transfer......Page 159
5.2.1 Exploitation of centrifugal fields......Page 160
5.2.2 The desktop continuous process......Page 161
5.2.4 The Nusselt flow model......Page 162
5.2.5 Mass transfer......Page 164
5.2.6 Heat transfer......Page 166
5.2.8 Film-flow studies......Page 169
5.2.9 Heat/mass transfer performance......Page 170
5.2.10.1 Strategic considerations......Page 177
5.3.1 Rotor stator reactors: the STT reactor......Page 179
5.3.2 Taylor–Couette reactor......Page 180
5.3.2.1 Applications......Page 181
5.3.3 Rotating packed bed reactors......Page 182
5.4 Oscillatory baffled reactors (OBRs)......Page 183
5.4.1 Gas–liquid systems......Page 185
5.4.2 Liquid–liquid systems......Page 186
5.4.4 OBR design......Page 187
5.4.5 Biological applications......Page 189
5.4.7 Crystallisation......Page 190
5.4.8 Oscillatory meso-reactors: scaling OBRs down......Page 191
5.4.9 Case study......Page 192
5.5 Micro-reactors (including hex-reactors)......Page 193
5.5.1 The catalytic plate reactor (CPR)......Page 195
5.5.1.1 Steam reforming......Page 196
5.5.1.3 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis......Page 197
5.5.2.1 The Alfa Laval plate heat exchanger reactor......Page 199
5.5.2.2 The HELIX reactor......Page 201
5.5.2.3 The PCR – printed circuit reactor......Page 202
5.5.2.4 The multiple adiabatic-bed PCR......Page 203
5.5.2.5 The chart compact heat exchanger reactors......Page 204
5.5.3 The corning micro-structured reactor......Page 207
5.5.4 Constant power reactors......Page 209
5.5.4.1 Case study......Page 211
5.6.2 Sonochemical reactors......Page 212
5.6.2.1 Biological applications of ultrasound......Page 213
5.6.3 Microwave enhancement......Page 214
5.7 Reactive separations......Page 215
5.7.1 Reactive distillation......Page 217
5.7.2 Reactive extraction......Page 218
5.7.3 Reactive adsorption......Page 219
5.8.2 Membrane slurry reactor......Page 220
5.9 Supercritical operation......Page 222
5.9.1 Applications......Page 223
5.10.1.1 Applications......Page 224
5.10.3 Heat pipe reactors......Page 231
5.11 Summary......Page 232
References......Page 233
6.1 Introduction......Page 238
6.2.1 Distillation – dividing wall columns......Page 239
6.2.2 Compact heat exchangers inside the column......Page 241
6.2.3 Cyclic distillation systems......Page 242
6.2.4 HiGee......Page 243
6.2.4.1 Principal HiGee operating features......Page 249
6.2.4.2 Phase inversion......Page 253
6.3 Centrifuges......Page 254
6.3.1 Conventional types......Page 255
6.4 Membranes......Page 256
6.5 Drying......Page 258
6.5.1.1 Microwaves......Page 259
6.5.2 Membranes for dehydration......Page 260
6.6.1 The environment for particle formation......Page 261
6.6.2 The spinning cone......Page 262
6.6.3 Electric fields to aid crystallisation of thin films......Page 263
6.7.2 Capture mechanism/efficiency......Page 264
6.7.3 Applications......Page 267
6.8.1 Introduction......Page 268
6.8.2 The effect of microgravity......Page 269
6.8.3 The effect of high gravity......Page 270
6.8.4 Current supply......Page 271
6.8.5 Rotary electrolysis cell design......Page 272
6.8.6.1 Effect of electrode structure......Page 274
6.8.7.1 The effect of centrifugal acceleration......Page 277
References......Page 280
7.1 Introduction......Page 284
7.2.1 Static mixers......Page 285
7.2.1.2 Example of a mixer heat exchanger......Page 287
7.2.2 Ejectors......Page 288
7.2.3 Rotor stator mixers......Page 289
References......Page 290
8.1 Introduction......Page 292
8.2 Refineries......Page 293
8.2.1 Catalytic plate reactor opportunities......Page 294
8.3 Bulk chemicals......Page 295
8.3.1.1 Chinese tail gas cleaning plant–acid stripping using an RPB......Page 296
8.3.1.3 Removal of NOx in industrial tail gas......Page 299
8.3.2 Intensified methane reforming......Page 300
8.3.3 The hydrocarbon chain......Page 302
8.3.5 Formaldehyde from methanol using micro-reactors......Page 303
8.3.7 Olefin hydroformylation – use of a HEX-reactor......Page 305
8.3.8.1 Manufacture of polystyrene......Page 307
8.3.8.2 Polycondensation......Page 309
8.3.10.1 Background......Page 310
8.3.10.2 Factors affecting feasibility......Page 312
8.3.10.4 Blade cooling with endothermic fuel......Page 313
8.3.10.5 Gas turbine plus fuel cell......Page 314
8.3.10.8 Partial oxidation gas turbine cycle (POGT)......Page 315
8.3.10.9 Selected concepts......Page 316
Intercooling......Page 317
8.3.10.10 The ‘Turbo-cracker’ – an ICI concept......Page 318
8.3.10.11 Cogeneration of ethylene and electricity......Page 319
8.3.11 Other bulk chemical applications in the literature......Page 320
8.4.1 Penicillin extraction......Page 321
8.4.4 Spinning disc reactor for barium carbonate production......Page 323
8.4.5 Spinning disc reactor for producing a drug intermediate......Page 325
8.4.6 SDR in the fragrance industry......Page 327
8.4.8 Ultrasound and the intensification of micro-encapsulation......Page 329
8.4.10 Chiral amines – scaling up in the Coflore flow reactor......Page 331
8.5.2 Bioethanol to ethylene in a micro-reactor......Page 333
8.5.3 Base chemicals produced from biomass......Page 334
8.6.2 Carbon capture methods......Page 335
8.6.2.2 Post-combustion capture......Page 336
8.6.3 Intensification of post-combustion carbon capture......Page 337
8.6.3.1 The absorber......Page 338
8.6.3.3 Intermediate heat exchanger......Page 341
8.6.3.4 The way ahead......Page 342
8.6.3.5 Other current and recent research on intensified carbon capture using RPBs......Page 343
8.6.4.2 Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA)......Page 345
8.6.4.3 Chemical looping combustion and chemical looping reforming......Page 346
8.7 Further reading......Page 348
References......Page 350
9.1 Introduction......Page 356
9.2.2 More recent observations – those of ConocoPhillips......Page 357
9.2.3 One 2007 scenario......Page 360
9.3.1 Setting the scene......Page 361
9.3.3 Compact heat exchangers offshore (and onshore)......Page 362
9.3.4 Extending the PCHE concept to reactors......Page 364
9.3.5 HiGee for enhanced oil recovery – surfactant synthesis......Page 365
9.3.6 Deoxygenation using high gravity fields......Page 366
9.3.6.1 Centrifugal oxygen removal using liquid injection for 1,000 g production......Page 367
9.3.6.2 HiGee for deoxygenation......Page 368
9.3.6.3 Miniature hydrocyclones......Page 370
9.3.6.4 Supersonic gas conditioning – the Twister......Page 371
9.4 Floating production, storage and offloading systems (FPSO) activities......Page 373
9.5 Safety offshore – can PI help?......Page 378
References......Page 379
10.2 The nuclear industry......Page 382
10.2.1 Highly compact heat exchangers for reactors......Page 383
10.2.3 Uranium enrichment by centrifuge......Page 385
10.3 The food and drink sector......Page 388
10.3.2 Sector characteristics......Page 390
10.3.4 Electric fields for drying and cooking......Page 391
10.3.5 Spinning discs in the food sector......Page 392
10.3.5.1 SDR for custard manufacture......Page 394
10.3.5.2 Ice cream on SDRs......Page 396
10.3.6 Deaeration systems for beverage packaging......Page 397
10.3.7 Intensified refrigeration......Page 400
10.3.8 Pursuit dynamics intensified mixing......Page 401
10.3.9 The Torbed reactor in food processing......Page 402
10.4.2 Textile finishing......Page 404
10.4.3 Textile effluent treatment......Page 405
10.4.4 Laundry processes......Page 406
10.5.1 The metallurgical sector......Page 408
10.5.1.2 Molten metal degassing......Page 409
10.5.1.5 Copper extraction using emulsion liquid membranes......Page 410
10.5.2.2 Microwaves in ceramics manufacture......Page 411
10.5.2.3 Vermiculite processing using the Torbed reactor......Page 412
10.6 Aerospace......Page 413
10.7 Biotechnology......Page 414
10.7.1 Biodiesel production......Page 415
10.7.2 Waste/effluent treatment......Page 417
10.7.2.2 Treatment of waste water and contaminated soil......Page 418
10.7.2.3 Waste water treatment – an industrial viewpoint......Page 421
References......Page 422
11.1 Introduction......Page 426
11.2 Refrigeration/heat pumping......Page 427
11.2.1 The Rotex chiller/heat pump......Page 428
11.2.2 Compact heat exchangers in heat pumps......Page 432
11.2.3 Micro-refrigerator for chip cooling......Page 437
11.2.4 Absorption and adsorption cycles......Page 439
11.3.1 Miniature fuel cells......Page 444
11.3.3 Batteries......Page 447
11.3.5 Energy scavenging......Page 450
11.4 Microelectronics......Page 451
11.4.1 Micro-fluidics......Page 452
11.4.2 Micro-heat pipes – electronics thermal control......Page 455
References......Page 465
12.1 Introduction......Page 470
12.2 Various approaches to adopting PI......Page 471
12.2.1.1 The Linnhoff March early approach......Page 472
12.2.2 Britest process innovation......Page 473
12.2.3 Process analysis and development – a German approach......Page 474
12.3.1 Know your current process......Page 475
12.3.2.1 Kinetics......Page 478
12.3.2.2 Heat and mass transfer......Page 479
12.4 Equipment specification......Page 480
12.4.1 Concerns about fouling......Page 482
12.4.2 Factors affecting control and their relevance to PI plant......Page 483
12.6 Pointers to the successful operation of PI plant......Page 487
The old route to process development......Page 489
Use a PI methodology......Page 490
Step 3: Examine PI blockers......Page 491
Step 7: List initial concepts (continuous activity)......Page 492
Step 12: Make the final choice of plant......Page 493
12.8 The ultimate goal – whole plant intensification......Page 494
12.9 Learning from experience......Page 496
References......Page 497
Case Studies 1–4......Page 499
Appendix 1: Abbreviations Used......Page 576
Appendix 2: Nomenclature......Page 578
Compact Heat Exchangers and Heat Exchanger Reactors......Page 580
Extractors......Page 582
Fuel Cells......Page 583
Instrumentation......Page 584
Intensified Process Plant Design, Development and Manufacture......Page 585
Micro-Heat Exchangers......Page 586
Microreactors (See Also Compact Heat Exchangers & Heat Exchanger-Reactors)......Page 587
Mixers......Page 588
Mixer-Reactors......Page 590
Oscillatory Baffle Reactors (OBRs)......Page 591
Separators......Page 592
Ultrasound Systems......Page 594
Appendix 4: R&D Organisations, Consultants and Miscellaneous Groups Active in PI......Page 596
A5.2 Centres of Excellence/Groupings......Page 610
A5.4 Networks......Page 612
Index......Page 614