Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls Handbook

Index......Page 0
1. Introductory Review......Page 4
2. Control System Fundamentals......Page 18
Process Reaction Curve......Page 21
Process Transfer Function......Page 26
On-Off Control Action......Page 28
Proportional Control......Page 29
Offset......Page 32
Automatic Reset-Proportional Plus Integral Controllers......Page 33
Integral Saturation......Page 35
Time- and Current-Proportioning Controllers......Page 36
Process Control Characteristics and Controller Selection......Page 39
Controller Selection......Page 40
Single-Capacity Processes......Page 41
Multicapacity Processes......Page 42
Digital Control......Page 47
State-Space Representation......Page 48
Transfer-Operator Representation......Page 49
Feedback Control......Page 50
Robustness......Page 51
Feedforward Control......Page 54
Multiple-Loop Control......Page 55
Linear-Quadratic Design......Page 57
Minimum-Time Switching Control......Page 58
Minimum-Variance Design......Page 59
Algebraic Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Design......Page 61
Antialias Filtering......Page 64
Adaptive Control......Page 65
Pattern Recognition and Expert Systems, Performance-Feedback Adaptor......Page 67
Discrete-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation......Page 69
Continuous-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation......Page 71
Least-Squares Method, Batch Parameter Identification......Page 72
References......Page 73
Introduction......Page 74
Structure of Traditional Process Control......Page 76
Fixed-Point Format......Page 78
Fixed-Point Scaling......Page 79
Range and Error in Fixed-Point Arithmetic......Page 80
Fixed-Point Multiplication and Division......Page 81
Digital Integration for Control......Page 82
Floating-Point Format......Page 83
Generalized Multiple-Precision Floating-Point......Page 84
Specification of Fixed-Point Algorithms......Page 85
Operational Issues......Page 86
Output Limiting: External Feedback......Page 88
External Feedback in Nonlinear Compensators......Page 90
Lead/Lag Calculation......Page 91
PID Controller Calculation......Page 92
Dead-Time Calculation......Page 94
Quantization and Saturation Effects......Page 95
Identification and Matrix-Oriented Issues......Page 96
Software and Application Issues......Page 98
References......Page 99
Safety in Instrumentation and Control Systems......Page 100
Classifying a Hazardous Location......Page 101
Techniques Used to Reduce Explosion Hazards......Page 103
Explosionproof Housings......Page 104
Pressurization Systems......Page 105
Intrinsic Safety......Page 107
Early Developments......Page 108
Mechanical and Electrical Isolation......Page 109
Current and Voltage Limiting......Page 110
Analytical Method for Circuit Design......Page 111
Simplifying Assumptions......Page 112
Testing of Special Cases......Page 113
General Principles......Page 114
Ignition by Optical Sources......Page 116
Bibliography......Page 117
 3. Controllers......Page 119
Introduction......Page 124
Evolution of the Distributed Control System......Page 125
Sampled Data Interval Induced Deadtime......Page 128
Loop Commissioning: Initialization Sequences and Bumpless-Balanceless Transfer......Page 132
Transition from Automatic Control to Production Management......Page 135
Fieldbus and Intelligent Devices......Page 139
Internet Technology......Page 141
Object-Oriented Software Components and Containers......Page 142
Complete and Detailed Functional Specification and System Requirements Definitions......Page 143
System Evaluation: Budget, Schedule, and Risk Assessment......Page 147
Conclusions......Page 148
Bibliography......Page 149
Programmable Controllers Defined......Page 150
PC-Based Control......Page 151
Single-Board Controllers......Page 152
Networking Choices......Page 153
Control Network Example......Page 154
Device Network Example......Page 155
Chassis-Based vs. Distributed I/O......Page 156
Software Choices......Page 157
Sequential Function Charts (SFCs)......Page 159
Structured Text......Page 161
Software Standards......Page 162
Controller Selection......Page 164
Speed......Page 165
The Application......Page 166
Safety/Data Integrity......Page 167
Stand-Alone Controllers......Page 168
Single- and Dual-Loop Controllers......Page 171
Reference......Page 175
Hydraulic Controllers......Page 176
Elements of Hydraulic Controllers......Page 177
Jet Pipe Valve......Page 178
Two-Stage Valves......Page 180
Proportional Valves......Page 182
Fire-Resistant Fluids......Page 183
Power Considerations......Page 184
Applications......Page 185
Size-Selection Procedures......Page 186
Relative Advantages and Limitations......Page 188
Batch Mode......Page 189
Batching Nomenclature......Page 191
Defining and Outlining the Batch Process......Page 193
System Selection Factors......Page 196
References......Page 203
Typical Blend Configuration......Page 204
Liquid or Powder Blending......Page 205
Blend Setup......Page 206
Automatic Rate Control......Page 209
Distributed Numerical Control and Networking......Page 210
Basic DNC Configuration......Page 211
Advantages of Basic DNC System......Page 212
DNC Operating Systems......Page 214
Personal Computer DNC Systems......Page 215
UNIX-Based Network......Page 217
DNC System Trends Controllers......Page 218
Computers and Controls......Page 219
Initial Considerations of Computers in Control Systems......Page 220
Basic PC......Page 223
PC Speed......Page 224
Interfacing the PC......Page 225
PC Software......Page 226
Software Control Techniques......Page 228
Progressive Enhancement of the PC......Page 229
Terminology......Page 230
The History of MMS......Page 253
The MMS Standard......Page 254
Benefits of MMS......Page 255
Justifying MMS......Page 256
Client/Server Relationship......Page 257
MMS Device and Object Modeling......Page 259
MMS Objects......Page 260
The VMD Execution Model......Page 261
Domains......Page 262
Program Invocations......Page 263
Batch Controller Example......Page 264
Variable-Access Services......Page 268
MMS Variables......Page 265
Event Management Model......Page 269
Event Condition Object......Page 270
Event Actions......Page 271
Event Enrollments......Page 272
Semaphore Management Model......Page 274
Pool Semaphores......Page 275
Semaphore Entry......Page 276
Semaphore Services......Page 277
Journal Objects......Page 278
Context Management......Page 279
Context Management Services......Page 280
Introduction......Page 281
Hardware......Page 284
Software......Page 285
Characteristics of a Field-Based System......Page 287
Field-Based System Results......Page 289
References......Page 290
4. Process Variables-Field Instrumentation......Page 291
Temperature Defined......Page 298
Temperature Scale Conversion......Page 299
Thermocouple Principles......Page 302
Thermocouple Signal Conditioning......Page 303
Thermocouple Fabrication and Protection......Page 304
Thermocouple Installation......Page 307
Thermocouple Circuit Flexibility......Page 308
Resistance-Temperature Detectors......Page 310
Principles of Resistance Thermometry......Page 311
Platinum RTDs......Page 312
RTD Circuitry......Page 314
Thermocouple and RTD Transmitters......Page 316
Evolution of Temperature Transmitters......Page 317
Thermistors......Page 318
Thermistor Applications......Page 322
IR Thermometry Principles......Page 324
Measuring Temperatures of Nonblackbodies......Page 327
Classes of IR Thermometers......Page 331
Filled-System Thermometers......Page 334
Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensor......Page 336
Reference......Page 337
Fluid Pressure Systems......Page 338
Manometers......Page 339
Elastic-Element Mechanical Pressure Gages......Page 343
Force or Pressure Sensors, Transducers and Transmitters......Page 344
Strain-Gage Transducers......Page 345
Capacitive Pressure Transducers......Page 359
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers......Page 363
Resonant-Wire Pressure Transducers......Page 365
Reluctive Elements......Page 367
Vacuum Measurement......Page 368
Pirani or Thermocouple Vacuum Gage......Page 370
Hot-Filament Ionization Vacuum Gage......Page 372
Cold-Cathode Ionization Vacuum Gage......Page 373
Spinning-Rotor Friction Vacuum Gage......Page 375
Partial-Pressure Analyzers (Vacuum)......Page 376
Smart Pressure Transmitters......Page 377
Application of Chemical Seals......Page 378
Chemical Seal Hardware......Page 382
Response Time......Page 383
Restriction Flow Measurement with Primary Devices and Differential Pressure Transmitters......Page 385
Errors in Orifice Plate System......Page 392
Orifice Application, Device Selection......Page 394
Pitot Tube Application......Page 395
Basic Flow Metering Considerations......Page 396
Differential-Pressure Flowmeters......Page 398
Variable-Area Flowmeters......Page 400
Measuring Principle......Page 404
Construction......Page 405
Application Areas......Page 406
Magmeter Installation Tips and Suggestions......Page 407
Alternating (ac) Field System......Page 408
Pulsed Direct (dc) Field Systems......Page 409
The Inductive Flowmeter for Special Measurement Problems......Page 411
Reynolds Numbers......Page 412
Turbine Flowmeter Construction......Page 413
Oscillatory Flowmeters......Page 415
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters......Page 416
Vortex Meter Advantages......Page 417
Process Variables-Field Instrumentation......Page 418
Fluidic Operating Principle......Page 420
Inferential Mass Flow Measurement (Microprocessor-Based Volumetric Flowmeters)......Page 421
Vortex Flowmeter Liquid Mass......Page 422
Differential Pressure Meter Gas Mass......Page 423
Glossary......Page 424
Principle of Operation......Page 425
Temperature Measurement......Page 427
Thermal Mass Flowmeters......Page 429
Flow Application Matrix......Page 430
Doppler-Effect (Frequency-Shift) Flowmeters......Page 432
Transit-Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters......Page 434
Positive-Displacement Flowmeters......Page 435
Oscillating-Piston Meter......Page 436
Oval-Shaped Gear Flowmeters......Page 438
Other Positive-Displacement Meters......Page 439
Parshall Flumes......Page 440
Open-Flow Nozzle (Kennison)......Page 441
Bulk-Solids Flow Measurement......Page 442
Belt-Conveyor Weighers......Page 443
Types of Level Measurement Systems......Page 444
General Considerations in Level Measurement Technology Selection......Page 446
Ambient Temperature......Page 447
Vapor, Mist and Dust......Page 448
Material Buildup or Stickiness......Page 449
Electromechanical Level Measurement and Detection Systems......Page 450
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids by Use of Displacers......Page 451
Level Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of a Plumb Bob......Page 452
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Conductivity......Page 453
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Vibrating Forks Resonance or Rod Attenuation......Page 454
Level Detection of Solids by Use of  Vibrating Fork or Rod Attenuation......Page 455
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Bubblers......Page 457
Level Measurement by Use of Pressure Transmitters......Page 458
Electronic DP Measurement......Page 462
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Ultrasonic......Page 464
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Capacitance......Page 467
Fully and Partially Insulated Probes......Page 468
Capacitance Probes and Buildup......Page 469
Installation and Application Considerations......Page 470
Point Level Measurement......Page 471
Selection Criteria......Page 472
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Time-Domain Reflectometry......Page 473
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Magnetostrictive......Page 474
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Radiometric......Page 475
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Optics......Page 477
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Ultrasonic Tank Resonance......Page 478
Industrial Scales......Page 480
Fluid Density......Page 481
Humidity and Moisture Systems......Page 486
Humidity Fundamentals......Page 487
Other Important Terminology......Page 488
Percent Relative Humidity......Page 489
Dew Point Hygrometry......Page 490
Direct Measurements Versus Sample Systems......Page 492
Thermometry Based......Page 498
Capacitance......Page 509
Resistance......Page 513
Optical Property Based......Page 514
Mechanical Effect Based......Page 515
Chemical Reaction Based......Page 518
Application Guide for Gases......Page 523
Aluminum Oxide......Page 525
Centrifugal......Page 526
General Observations......Page 527
Calibration......Page 528
Applications......Page 529
Reference......Page 539
5. Geometric and Motion Sensors......Page 540
Dimensional Standards......Page 544
Interferometer......Page 545
Gage Blocks......Page 546
Clinometer......Page 548
Protractor......Page 549
Sine Bar......Page 550
Miniature Positioning Tables (Stages)......Page 551
Positioning Table Geometry......Page 552
Machine Conditions and Requirements......Page 553
Rotary Motion......Page 558
Rotary Incremental Optical Encoders......Page 559
Accuracy of Rotary Incremental Encoder......Page 562
Rotary Absolute Optical Encoders......Page 563
Advantages of Absolute Encoders......Page 565
Resolvers......Page 566
Linear Encoders......Page 567
Other Linear Position Transducers......Page 568
Linear Variable Differential Transformers......Page 571
Linear Potentiometers......Page 575
Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensors......Page 577
Sidebar......Page 582
Magnetic Properties Glossary......Page 583
Nuclear Radiation Thickness Gages......Page 584
Ultrasonic Thickness Gages......Page 586
Surface Texture Measurement......Page 587
Statistical Quality Control......Page 589
SQC Glossary of Terms......Page 590
System Approach to SQC......Page 598
SQC in the Process Industries......Page 599
Production Gaging Systems......Page 601
Electromechanical Limit Switches......Page 604
Inductive Proximity Sensors......Page 605
Wiegand-Effect Switches......Page 608
Magnetically Actuated Dry-Reed Switches......Page 609
Capacitive Proximity Sensors......Page 611
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors......Page 613
Photoelectric Proximity Sensors......Page 616
Machine Vision......Page 623
Elements of Pattern Recognition......Page 624
MV Sensors......Page 625
MV Image Processing......Page 626
MV Applications......Page 627
Discrete-Piece Identification-Bar Coding......Page 628
Flat Web (Sheet) Measurements......Page 631
Flat Web (Sheet) Control......Page 632
Definition of Terms......Page 635
Tachometers......Page 637
DC Tachometers......Page 638
AC Tachometers......Page 639
Magnetic Speed Sensors......Page 641
Stroboscopic Tachometers......Page 644
Eddy-Current Tachometers......Page 646
Air and Gas Velocity Measurement......Page 647
Revolving-Vane Anemometers......Page 648
Constant-Temperature Thermal Anemometers......Page 649
Vibration Measurements......Page 650
Design Considerations......Page 651
Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 652
Variable Capacitive......Page 654
Conditioning Piezoresistive Transducers......Page 655
Environmental Effects......Page 656
Noncontact (Relative-Motion) Sensors......Page 657
Optical Vibrometers......Page 658
6. Real-Time Analytical Composition Measurements for Input to Process Control......Page 659
Changing Times and Technology......Page 664
Avoid Common Mistakes......Page 665
Trends in Analytical Instrumentation......Page 666
Approaches to Procuring Analytical Services......Page 667
Thermal Conductivity (and Gas Density)......Page 668
Electrical Conductivity......Page 671
Electrical Conductivity Measurement......Page 672
Temperature Compensation......Page 674
Sensor Selection and Installation......Page 677
Electrical Resistance......Page 678
Piezoelectric Crystal (H2O)......Page 679
pH Measurement: Theory and Reality......Page 681
Reference Electrode......Page 688
Cleaning Methods......Page 690
Problems and Causes......Page 693
Sources of pH Measurement Errors and Failures......Page 697
Selection......Page 698
Best Practices for pH Measurement Selection......Page 703
Installation......Page 705
Best Practices for pH Measurement Installation......Page 707
Maintenance......Page 708
Best Practices for pH Maintenance......Page 710
Key Points......Page 711
Rules of Thumb......Page 712
Turbidity......Page 713
Size/Shape......Page 714
Concentration......Page 715
90 Degree Scatter......Page 716
Surface Scatter......Page 717
Applications......Page 718
Specification......Page 720
Design......Page 721
Maintenance......Page 722
Refractive Index......Page 723
Critical Angle Measurement......Page 724
Specification......Page 725
Applications......Page 726
Installation Guidelines......Page 727
Introduction......Page 728
Beer's Law-Concentration Versus Absorption......Page 729
UV/VIS Process Analyzers......Page 731
Sampling System Considerations for UV/VIS Analyzers......Page 733
X-RAY Fluorescence and Absorption......Page 736
Chemilluminescence......Page 737
Flame......Page 738
Thermionic......Page 739
Electron Capture......Page 740
Sample Extraction, Conditioning and Preparation for On-Line Analysis (Continuous Sample Flow Versus Discrete Sampling)......Page 741
Sampling System Functions......Page 742
Principles of Sample Handling......Page 743
Techniques of Sample Transfer......Page 746
Fundamentals of Sample Preparation......Page 747
Remote Discrete Sampling/Flow Injection/Multidimensional Sample Preparation......Page 748
Fast GC......Page 751
Multidimensional Sample Manipulation Techniques......Page 752
References......Page 757
Appendix A: Linear Column Component Separation Parameters......Page 760
Sample System and Analyzer Control......Page 762
Digital Versus Analog Sensors......Page 764
DSP Provides Detectors with Greater Precision at High Sensitivity......Page 765
The Many Advantages of DSP......Page 766
Information Display, Storage and Communication......Page 767
Example of Current System......Page 768
Housings and Ovens......Page 769
Calibration and Validation......Page 770
Permeation Devices......Page 771
Internal Standards......Page 772
Decisions to Change Analyzer Calibration Based on Statistical Quality-Control Charts......Page 773
Finding Probable Cause and Taking Action......Page 774
Statistical Process Control Utilizing Control Charts......Page 776
Oxygen Analyzer on a Furnace Stack Gas......Page 780
Propionic Acid in Acetic Acid......Page 781
Acrolein in Acrylonitrile......Page 782
Internal Reference Introduction for Performance Verification and Diagnostics......Page 783
References......Page 785
Internal Injection......Page 786
Water (H2O)......Page 788
Apparatus......Page 789
Procedures......Page 790
Stack Continuus Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS)......Page 793
Operating Procedure......Page 794
Appendix II......Page 797
Air Oxidation of Hydrocarbons......Page 799
Air/Ammoxidation of Hydrocarbons......Page 800
Wide Boiling Range Liquid-Olefins and Alcohols......Page 802
Waste-Water Monitoring......Page 807
Lethal Service on Hydrogen Cyanide......Page 808
Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process Control......Page 809
Waste-Gas Analysis/Hydrgen Generation Control......Page 810
Gasoline Blending......Page 812
7. Control Communications......Page 813
Data Signal Handling in Computerized Systems......Page 814
Signal Types......Page 815
Field Signals and Transducers......Page 816
Thermocouples......Page 818
Solid-State Temperature Sensors......Page 819
Sampled-Data Systems......Page 820
Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 821
Amplifiers......Page 823
Single-Ended Versus Differential Signals......Page 824
Sample/Hold System......Page 825
Multiplexers......Page 826
Filtering......Page 827
Analog Signal Scaling......Page 829
Resistance Signals......Page 830
Current Conversion......Page 833
Surge Protection......Page 834
Digital-to-Analog Converters......Page 835
Pulse and Frequency Inputs and Outputs......Page 836
Digital Isolation......Page 837
Motor Control......Page 838
Noise and Wiring in Data Signal Handling......Page 839
Grounding and Shielding Principles......Page 841
Cable Types......Page 842
Troubleshooting Guide for Noise......Page 843
Cable-Length Guidelines......Page 844
Early Networking Concepts......Page 846
Early Data Highways......Page 848
Network Protocols......Page 850
Token Bus Protocol (IEEE 802.4)......Page 852
Communication Models and Layers......Page 853
Manufacturing Automation Protocol......Page 855
Open Systems......Page 856
Fieldbus......Page 857
Fiber-Optic Cables and Networks......Page 858
Characteristics of Optical Fibers and Cables......Page 859
Light Sources and Detectors......Page 862
8. Operator Interface......Page 863
Operator Interface - Design Rationale......Page 864
Habit Patterns......Page 865
Operator-Interface Geometry......Page 866
Alphanumeric Displays......Page 867
Keyboards......Page 870
Local Environment......Page 872
Process Control Tasks......Page 873
GOMS and NGOMSL......Page 874
Conclusions......Page 875
Pattern Recognition......Page 876
Spatial Representations......Page 877
Using a Predictor......Page 878
Impact of Automation......Page 879
Overestimating the Intelligence of the Computers......Page 880
Conclusions......Page 881
References......Page 882
The Graphics Interface......Page 884
"Conversational" Interactions......Page 887
Data Inputs......Page 888
Visual Display Devices......Page 891
Knowledge-Based Operator Training......Page 893
References......Page 898
Intelligent Alarms......Page 899
References......Page 901
9. Valves, Servos, Motors, and Robots......Page 902
Process Control Valves......Page 906
Sliding-Stem Valves......Page 908
Ball Valves......Page 911
Butterfly Valves......Page 912
Special Control Valves......Page 917
Control Valve Performance [1]......Page 922
Valve Type and Characterization......Page 923
General Selection Criteria......Page 924
Operating Temperature......Page 925
Selection of Materials......Page 926
Valve Packing [1]......Page 927
Flow Characteristic......Page 929
Pressure Drop......Page 930
Flow Capacity......Page 931
Valve Sizing......Page 933
Choked Flow......Page 934
Piping Considerations......Page 935
Power Source......Page 936
Control Functions......Page 937
Actuator Designs......Page 938
Actuator Sizing......Page 943
Summary of Actuator Selection Factors......Page 944
Valve Positioners and Controllers......Page 946
Electropneumatic Transducers......Page 947
Installation Techniques......Page 949
Summary Checklist......Page 953
Control Valve Troubleshooting......Page 955
Common Valve Maintenance Procedures......Page 960
Lapping the Seats......Page 961
Introduction......Page 964
Introduction......Page 965
Valve Hydrodynamics......Page 966
Cavity Mechanics......Page 967
Damage Mechanisms......Page 968
Cavitation Abatement Strategies......Page 969
Backpressure Devices......Page 970
Material Selection......Page 971
Special Trim Designs......Page 972
Background......Page 973
Cavitation Parameters and Coefficients......Page 974
References......Page 976
Noise Terminology......Page 977
Hydrodynamic Noise......Page 979
Aerodynamic Noise: IEC 534-8-3 [2]......Page 980
Path Treatment......Page 981
Introduction......Page 984
Types of Servo Motors......Page 985
General Characteristics and Comparison of Servo Motors......Page 987
Motor Parameters, Definitions, and Terminology......Page 992
Name-Plate Ratings......Page 993
Regulatory Considerations......Page 995
Speed Versus Torque Curves......Page 996
Thermal Ratings-Insulation Class......Page 998
Mounting......Page 1000
Couplers......Page 1003
Bearings......Page 1004
Lubrication......Page 1006
Vibration......Page 1007
References......Page 1008
Reasons for Using a Variable Speed Drive......Page 1009
Semiconductor Switching Devices......Page 1010
Drive Control Technology......Page 1011
Solid-State dc Drives......Page 1012
ac Variable Frequency Drives......Page 1013
Induction Motor Variable Speed Drives......Page 1014
Medium-Voltage Variable Frequency Drives......Page 1016
The Load Commutated Inverter......Page 1018
Filter Commutated Thyristor Drive......Page 1020
Current-Fed GTO Inverter......Page 1021
Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverter......Page 1022
Cycloconverter......Page 1023
Comparison of Medium-Voltage Motor Drives......Page 1024
Basic Format of Robot......Page 1025
Degrees of Freedom......Page 1026
Dynamic Properties of Robots......Page 1029
Stability......Page 1030
Resolution and Repeatability......Page 1032
End-Effectors (Grippers)......Page 1034
Robot Programming and Control......Page 1036
Traditional Flapper-Nozzle Design......Page 1041
Introduction of New I/P Concepts......Page 1043
Electronic Feedback......Page 1045
10. Process Control Improvement......Page 1047
Model for Improving Process Control to Achieve Business Benefits......Page 1053
Analysis to Identify Control Improvements......Page 1054
Identify Key Product Properties and Process Variables......Page 1055
Identify the Need for Improved Measurement and Control......Page 1056
Statistical Metrics......Page 1057
Estimate Benefits for the Improvements......Page 1059
Yield Stake......Page 1060
Performance Metrics......Page 1061
Conclusions......Page 1062
Introduction......Page 1063
The Process as a Network......Page 1064
Operating Constraints, Uptime, Efficiency......Page 1065
Process Example - Paper Making......Page 1066
Process Control Strategy - Paper Machine Blending......Page 1068
Variability Examples......Page 1070
Diagnostic Principles......Page 1073
Time Series Analysis Tools......Page 1074
Sampling Theory - Time Series Data......Page 1075
Data Aliasing......Page 1076
Antialiasing Filters......Page 1078
Statistical Analysis......Page 1079
Stochastic Data Structures and Ideal Signals......Page 1080
Histogram......Page 1081
Spectral Analysis......Page 1082
Fast Fourier Transform......Page 1084
Power Spectrum......Page 1085
Spectral Analysis Plotting Methods......Page 1086
Spectral Analysis Windowing and Detrending......Page 1087
Cross-Correlation and Autocorrelation Functions......Page 1088
Identifying the Manufacturing Requirements - Fine Paper Machine Example......Page 1089
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning......Page 1090
Coordinated Loop Tuning Based on Operational Requirements......Page 1091
Rules of Thumb for Process Interaction......Page 1092
Rules of Thumb for Buffer Inventory Storage Level Control......Page 1093
Tuning Rules of Thumb for Uniform Manufacturing - Summary......Page 1094
Resonance and Bode's Integral......Page 1095
Lambda Tuning Concept......Page 1096
Impact of Dead Time......Page 1097
Control Loop Robustness and Stability Margins......Page 1098
The Control Loop Performance-Robustness Envelope - Speed of Response versus Robustness......Page 1099
Identifying Plant Dynamics - Open-Loop Step Tests......Page 1100
Control Valve Dynamic Specification......Page 1102
Transmitter Deficiencies......Page 1103
Integrated Process Design and Control - Putting it all Together......Page 1104
Defining Terms and Nomenclature......Page 1105
References......Page 1106
Sample Preparation Methods and Hardware......Page 1107
Multiple-Wavelength Near-Infrared (NIR) Analyzer......Page 1108
Fourier Transform Infrared......Page 1109
Advantages of FTIR......Page 1110
Instrument Operation......Page 1111
Phase Correction......Page 1112
FTIR Interferometer Design [1]......Page 1113
Examples......Page 1115
The Measurement Principle......Page 1116
References......Page 1118
Dynamic Mass Analyzers......Page 1119
Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Analyzer......Page 1121
Ultraviolet/Visible Analyzers......Page 1123
Filter Isolation of Discrete Hollow Cathode Lamps [1]......Page 1124
Diode Array Process Spectrometer [2]......Page 1125
Raman Analyzers......Page 1126
Capabilities and Limitations......Page 1128
Examples of Raman Analyzer Applications......Page 1129
References......Page 1131
Rules of Thumb......Page 1133
Applications......Page 1134
Fundamentals of the Quantitative NMR......Page 1135
X-Ray Fluorescence......Page 1137
Monitoring Catalyst Depletion......Page 1138
Production of X-Ray Emission and Acquisition of XRF Spectra......Page 1140
X-Ray Excitation......Page 1141
Interaction of X Rays with Matter......Page 1143
X-Ray Detectors and Supporting Electronics......Page 1145
Microwave Spectroscopy......Page 1149
Instrument Bandwidth Differences......Page 1153
Guided Microwave Spectrometry......Page 1154
Interpretation of GMS Spectrums......Page 1157
Typical Software Approach to GMS Spectrum Measurement......Page 1158
Process Effects on Measurement......Page 1159
Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation......Page 1161
Signal Processing......Page 1162
Signal Normalization......Page 1163
Sensitivities......Page 1164
Instrumentation......Page 1165
References......Page 1167
Liquid Chromatography......Page 1168
Problems and Causes......Page 1170
Best Practices......Page 1179
Closed-Loop Tuning Method......Page 1184
Shortcut Tuning Method......Page 1185
Simplified Dahlin or Lambda Tuning Method......Page 1186
Best Practices to Improve Performance......Page 1189
What are Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization?......Page 1190
Basic Concepts of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1191
Basic Concepts of Real-Time Optimization?......Page 1195
Linear Systems......Page 1197
Process Representations......Page 1201
Predictive Control......Page 1202
Move Suppression......Page 1204
Extension to the Multivariable Case......Page 1205
Constraint Handling and Economic Optimization......Page 1206
Justification of Constrained Multivariable......Page 1211
Process Modeling Guidelines for Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1212
Impulse Response Modeling......Page 1213
Time Series Analysis......Page 1215
Process Modeling Rules of Thumb......Page 1216
Constrained Multivariable Predictive Controller Tuning and Construction Guidelines......Page 1217
Real-Time Optimization Guidelines......Page 1218
Applications of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization......Page 1219
Developments and Future Directions of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1220
References......Page 1221
Historical Development......Page 1222
Classification of Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1223
The Multilayer Error Backpropagation Perceptron......Page 1224
Pattern Recognition......Page 1226
Interpolation/Function Approximation......Page 1227
Parameter Estimation and System Identification......Page 1228
Control Applications......Page 1231
Applications of Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1234
Virtual Sensors......Page 1235
Neurocontrollers and Process Optimization......Page 1236
Other Artificial Neural Network Applications......Page 1238
Selection of an Artificial Neural Network Tool Practical Guidelines for Building Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1239
Recurrent Network Architectures......Page 1240
References......Page 1242
11. Standards Overview......Page 1246
Design Life Cycle......Page 1248
Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment......Page 1249
Develop Safety Requirements Specification......Page 1250
Detailed SIS Design......Page 1251
Process Plant Design......Page 1252
Alarms and Operators......Page 1253
Logic Systems......Page 1254
Sensors......Page 1255
System Analysis......Page 1256
Notes for Table 1......Page 1257
References......Page 1258
Introduction......Page 1259
Physical Installation of a Fieldbus System......Page 1260
Utilizing Fieldbus Devices to Meet Application Requirements......Page 1266
Diagnostic Support of Foundation Fieldbus Devices......Page 1268
Control System Impact......Page 1272
Example Installations: Commercial Fieldbus Installations......Page 1274
Estimating Savings from Using Fieldbus Technology......Page 1275
Reduction of Terminations and Home Run Wiring......Page 1276
Reduction in the Number of I/O Cards......Page 1277
Summary......Page 1278
Best Practices in Applying Fieldbus......Page 1279
Introduction......Page 1280
Definitions......Page 1281
Recipe Types......Page 1282
Recipe Information Categories......Page 1283
Physical Model......Page 1285
Partitioning Equipment Entities......Page 1287
Procedural Control Model/Physical Model/Process Model Relationship......Page 1288
Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Separation......Page 1289
Control Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Linking......Page 1291
Process and Control Engineering......Page 1292
What is Needed to Define Batch Control......Page 1294
Equipment Entity Details......Page 1296
Summary......Page 1301
Key Points......Page 1302
References......Page 1303
Front Matter......Page 1
A......Page 1304
B......Page 1305
C......Page 1306
D......Page 1309
E......Page 1310
F......Page 1311
G......Page 1312
I......Page 1313
L......Page 1314
M......Page 1316
N......Page 1318
P......Page 1319
R......Page 1323
S......Page 1324
T......Page 1326
U......Page 1327
W......Page 1328
Z......Page 1329
Table of Contents......Page 1330