Probiotics in The Prevention and Management of Human Diseases: A Scientific Perspective

Front Cover
Probiotics in the Prevention and Management of Human Diseases
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword
Preface
1 The concept of probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, synbiotics, nutribiotics, and pharmabiotics
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Probiotics
	1.3 Prebiotics
	1.4 Synbiotics
	1.5 Postbiotics
	1.6 Nutribiotics
	1.7 Pharmabiotics
	Acknowledgments
	References
2 Food or pharma: the name does make a difference
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Probiotics: a substance or a product?
		2.2.1 The probiotic confusion
		2.2.2 Regulations at the “product” level: how to define the product’s regulatory status?
		2.2.3 The drug status
		2.2.4 The food status
	2.3 The various regulatory statuses applicable to products containing “probiotics”
		2.3.1 The general EU regulatory framework
			2.3.1.1 The legal requirements
			2.3.1.2 Complementary recommendations
			2.3.1.3 Specificities of the food and the pharmaceutical regulatory framework in the EU
				2.3.1.3.1 The pharma status of probiotics
				2.3.1.3.2 The status of “probiotic” claims for foods in Europe
					2.3.1.3.2.1 Health claims made on foods
					2.3.1.3.2.2 Food for special medical purposes
		2.3.2 The general US regulatory framework
			2.3.2.1 Specificities of the food and the pharmaceutical regulatory framework in the United States
			2.3.2.2 The food status of probiotics in the United States
				2.3.2.2.1 Health claims in the United States
				2.3.2.2.2 Probiotics as medical foods
			2.3.2.3 The pharmaceutical regulatory status for probiotics in the United States
		2.3.3 Canadian regulatory framework
			2.3.3.1 Details of the food regulatory framework
			2.3.3.2 The pharmaceutical regulatory framework in Canada
				2.3.3.2.1 Natural Health Products
				2.3.3.2.2 Biologic Drugs
			2.3.3.3 Standards and constraints associated with the pharmaceutical regulatory frameworks
				2.3.3.3.1 Natural Health Products
				2.3.3.3.2 Biologic Drugs
		2.3.4 The Japanese regulatory framework
			2.3.4.1 Details of the food regulatory framework
				2.3.4.1.1 Food for special dietary uses
				2.3.4.1.2 Food for Specific Health Uses
			2.3.4.2 Details of the pharmaceutical regulatory framework in Japan
				2.3.4.2.1 Responsible authorities and structures
				2.3.4.2.2 Pharmaceutical law in Japan
				2.3.4.2.3 Drug definition in Japan
				2.3.4.2.4 Drugs classification in Japan
				2.3.4.2.5 Standards for Biological Materials
				2.3.4.2.6 The manufacturing of bio(techno)logical products (including GMOs)
	2.4 Comparative summary
		2.4.1 Food regulatory statuses
			2.4.1.1 Food regulatory statuses (Table 2.1)
			2.4.1.2 Food or dietary supplements regulatory statuses (Table 2.2)
			2.4.1.3 Food for specific dietary use (Table 2.3)
		2.4.2 Drug regulatory statuses (Table 2.4)
	2.5 Conclusion: the name does make a difference
	Conflict of interest
	Notice
	References
3 The role of probiotics in maintaining immune homeostasis
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Gut microbiota and Covid-19
		3.1.2 Importance of probiotic nutrition in modulating immune homeostasis
		3.1.3 Probiotic mechanism of action
		3.1.4 Probiotic interlink with immunization efficacy
		3.1.5 Clinical translation of probiotic investigation
	3.2 Conlusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
4 Effect of intestinal microbiome, antibiotics, and probiotics in the prevention and management of ulcerative colitis
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 The role of intestinal microbiota in the development of bowel diseases
		4.2.1 Bacterial genera in the human large intestine
		4.2.2 Molecular hydrogen as a universal electron donor in intestinal SRB metabolism
		4.2.3 Hydrogen sulfide effect on intestinal cells
	4.3 General characteristics of drugs used in bowel diseases
		4.3.1 Antibacterial chemotherapeutics
	4.4 Modification of intestinal microbiome
		4.4.1 Probiotics
			4.4.1.1 Effect of probiotics on UC
			4.4.1.2 Probiotic species
				4.4.1.2.1 Lactobacillus strains
				4.4.1.2.2 Bifidobacterium strains
				4.4.1.2.3 Bacillus strains
				4.4.1.2.4 Other species
		4.4.2 Synbiotics
	4.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
5 Probiotics in the prevention and management of necrotizing enterocolitis
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 The microbiome, dysbiosis, and NEC
	5.3 Most relevant mechanisms of probiotic action in the preterm
	5.4 Probiotics and prevention of NEC
	5.5 Safety aspects of probiotics
	5.6 Conclusions and challenges for future research
	References
6 Probiotics in the prevention and management of irritable bowel syndrome
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Probiotics in prevention and management of IBS
	6.3 Conclusion
	References
7 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of diarrheal disease
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Diarrheal diseases
	7.3 Probiotics in prevention and treatment of diarrheal diseases
		7.3.1 Infectious diarrhea
		7.3.2 Travelers’ diarrhea
		7.3.3 Nosocomial diarrhea
			7.3.3.1 Antibiotic-associated diarrhea
			7.3.3.2 Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea
		7.3.4 Cancer therapy-induced diarrhea
		7.3.5 Lactose intolerance induced diarrhea
		7.3.6 Enteral tube feeding diarrhea
	7.4 Mode of action of probiotics
	7.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
8 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of atopic skin diseases
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Etiology and pathophysiology of atopic dermatitis
	8.3 Relationship between gut microbiota and atopic dermatitis
	8.4 Intervention of probiotics in atopic dermatitis
		8.4.1 Animal model studies
		8.4.2 Human studies/clinical trials
		8.4.3 Mechanism of probiotics in amelioration of AD
	8.5 Future perspectives of probiotics in prevention and treatment of AD
	8.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
9 Probiotics for the treatment of other skin conditions (acne, psoriasis, seborrheic dermatitis, wounds, and skin cancer)
	9.1 Acne vulgaris
	9.2 Psoriasis
	9.3 Seborrheic dermatitis
	9.4 Wound healing
		9.4.1 Diabetic ulcers
		9.4.2 Burn patients
	9.5 Skin cancer
	References
10 Probiotics in the prevention and management of allergic diseases (asthma and allergic rhinitis)
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Rationale for using probiotics in atopic diseases
	10.2 Prevention of asthma
		10.2.1 Animal studies for prevention of asthma through probiotics
		10.2.2 Human studies for prevention of asthma through probiotics
	10.3 Probiotics for the treatment of asthma
	10.4 Probiotics for the prevention of allergic rhinitis
	10.5 Probiotics for the treatment of allergic rhinitis
	10.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	Funding
	Conflicts of interest
	References
11 Prenatal and neonatal probiotic intake in pediatric allergy
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Safety of probiotics and prebiotics
	11.3 Probiotics, prebiotics, and immunity
	11.4 Microbiota and allergic disorders
	11.5 Mother’s microbiome and child health
	11.6 Clinical studies
		11.6.1 Atopic eczema
		11.6.2 Food allergy
	11.7 Conclusions
	References
12 Probiotics and prebiotics in the suppression of autoimmune diseases
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Autoimmune diseases
		12.2.1 Rheumatoid arthritis
		12.2.2 Systemic lupus erythematosus
		12.2.3 Type 1 diabetes mellitus
		12.2.4 Multiple sclerosis
		12.2.5 Cystic fibrosis
	12.3 Relationship between gut microbiota and immune system
		12.3.1 Link between gut microbiota and innate immunity
		12.3.2 Link between gut microbiota and adaptive immunity
	12.4 Gut microbiota associated with autoimmune diseases
	12.5 Beneficial role of probiotics in the suppression of autoimmune diseases
		12.5.1 Role of probiotics in the suppression of rheumatoid arthritis
		12.5.2 Role of probiotics in suppression of systemic lupus erythematosus
		12.5.3 Role of probiotics in suppression of type 1 diabetes mellitus
		12.5.4 Role of probiotics in suppression of multiple sclerosis
		12.5.5 Role of probiotics in suppression of cystic fibrosis
	12.6 Future perspectives
	12.7 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	Conflict of interest
	References
13 Probiotics and prebiotics in the prevention and management of human cancers (colon cancer, stomach cancer, breast cancer...
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Probiotics and prebiotics in stomach cancer
	13.3 Probiotics and prebiotics in colon cancer
	13.4 Probiotics and prebiotics in breast cancer
	13.5 Probiotics and prebiotics in cervical cancer
	13.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
14 Probiotics in mitigation of food allergies and lactose intolerance
	14.1 Introduction of probiotics and the gut microbiome
	14.2 Food allergies and lactose intolerance
	14.3 Lactose intolerance
	14.4 Role of probiotics in mitigation of food allergies and lactose intolerance
		14.4.1 Mechanism of action of probiotics
		14.4.2 Role of probiotics mitigation in lactose intolerance
	14.5 Dietary management strategies
	14.6 Therapeutic applications
	14.7 Intake of probiotics
	14.8 Future prospective of probiotic in food allergies
	14.9 Conclusions
	References
15 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of nosocomial infections
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Description of probiotics
	15.2 Hospital-acquired pneumonia and ventilator-associated pneumonia
		15.2.1 Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical presentation
		15.2.2 Dysbiosis in critically ill patients
		15.2.3 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults
		15.2.4 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia in pediatrics
	15.3 Clostridium difficile infection
		15.3.1 Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and clinical presentation
		15.3.2 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of C. difficile infection in adults
		15.3.3 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in pediatrics
	15.4 Conclusion
	References
16 Role of probiotics in urological health
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Vaginal microbiota
	16.3 Commensal microbial flora and preventing UTI
	16.4 Scope of the problem
	16.5 Urinary tract infection
	16.6 Bacterial vaginosis
	16.7 Yeast vaginitis
	16.8 Modes of administration of probiotics
		16.8.1 Topical application of probiotics or prebiotics
		16.8.2 Oral administration of probiotics
		16.8.3 Intravaginal administration of probiotics
		16.8.4 Combination therapies
	16.9 What does the evidence say?
	16.10 Conclusion
	References
17 Role of probiotics in prevention and treatment of Candida vaginitis and Bacterial vaginosis
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Healthy vaginal microflora and probiotic lactobacilli
	17.3 Vaginitis (vaginal infection)
	17.4 Probiotic roles in the prevention and treatment of vaginal infection
	17.5 Conclusion
	References
18 Role of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of oral diseases
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Role of probiotics in prevention and treatment of dental caries
	18.3 Role of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of periodontal diseases
	18.4 Role of probiotics in the prevention and treatment of halitosis
	18.5 Conclusions
	References
19 Role of probiotics in infections with multidrug-resistant organisms
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Probiotics
	19.3 General mechanisms of actions of probiotics against MDR bacteria
		19.3.1 Antibacterial action
		19.3.2 Antibiofilm action
		19.3.3 Antiquorum sensing
		19.3.4 Antivirulence property
		19.3.5 Antitoxic property
		19.3.6 Antiinvasion actions
		19.3.7 Intrabacterial and interbacterial aggregation
		19.3.8 Bacterial colonization interference
		19.3.9 Immunomodulation
		19.3.10 Antidrug resistance property
	19.4 Probiotics in organ-specific resistant infections
		19.4.1 Role of probiotics in urogenital infections
		19.4.2 Role of probiotics in the resistant skin and wound infections
		19.4.3 Probiotics in gut-mediated resistant infections
		19.4.4 Role of probiotics in resistant pulmonary infections
	19.5 Conclusion
	References
20 Probiotics in the prevention and treatment of infections with Helicobacter pylori, Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, a...
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Probiotics and their health implications
	20.3 Infections caused by Helicobacter pylori, enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, and rotavirus
	20.4 Helicobacter pylori
		20.4.1 How probiotics act against H. pylori infection?
		20.4.2 Efficacy of probiotics as vaccine delivery system for H. pylori infection
	20.5 Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli
		20.5.1 Origin, definition, and characteristics
		20.5.2 Treatment of EHEC infection
		20.5.3 Role of probiotics on EHEC infection
	20.6 Rotavirus
		20.6.1 Treatment of rotavirus infection
		20.6.2 Efficacy of probiotics
		20.6.3 Role of probiotics on RV infection
	20.7 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
21 Role of probiotics in the management of fungal infections
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Probiotics
	21.3 Probiotics in fungal diseases
		21.3.1 Probiotics in oral fungal infections
		21.3.2 Probiotics therapy for dermal infections
		21.3.3 Probiotics in vaginal fungal infections
		21.3.4 Probiotics in systemic fungal infections
	21.4 Future perspectives
	21.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
22 Role of probiotics in the prevention and management of diabetes and obesity
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Pathophysiology and risk factors of diabetes mellitus and obesity
		22.2.1 Pathophysiology and risk factors of T1D
		22.2.2 Gut microbiota in T1D
		22.2.3 Pathophysiology and risk factors of T2D
		22.2.4 Role of gut microbiota in T2D
		22.2.5 Pathophysiology and risk factors of obesity
		22.2.6 Gut microbiota and obesity
	22.3 Probiotics for the management of diabetes and obesity
		22.3.1 Probiotics for the management of T1D
		22.3.2 Probiotics for the management of T2D
		22.3.3 Probiotics for the management of obesity
	22.4 Conclusions
	References
23 Probiotics in the prevention and management of cardiovascular diseases with focus on dyslipidemia
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Probiotic bacteria
		23.2.1 Probiotic LAB
		23.2.2 Probiotic non-LAB
		23.2.3 Hypolipidemic mechanisms of action of probiotic bacteria
			23.2.3.1 Deconjugation of bile salts
			23.2.3.2 Bacterial conversion of cholesterol into coprostanol
			23.2.3.3 Incorporation and assimilation of cholesterol into the membrane
			23.2.3.4 Coprecipitation of cholesterol
			23.2.3.5 Inhibition of cholesterol transmembrane transporter expression in enterocytes
			23.2.3.6 Inhibition of hepatic cholesterol synthesis and stimulation of bile acid synthesis
	23.3 Probiotic yeasts
		23.3.1 Proposed hypocholesterolemic mechanisms of action for probiotic yeasts
	23.4 Conclusion
	References
24 Gut–brain axis: role of probiotics in neurodevelopmental disorders including autism spectrum disorder
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Colonization of the intestinal ecosystem in early life and its evolution
	24.3 Gut microbiota
	24.4 What are probiotics?
	24.5 Psychobiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics
	24.6 Autism and probiotics
	24.7 ASD and GI disorders
	24.8 The gut–brain axis
	24.9 Neurodevelopmental disorders
	24.10 Is the gut microbiota of children with autism spectrum disorder different?
	24.11 Literature evidence in ASD
	24.12 Newer techniques involving microbiota
	24.13 ADHD
	24.14 Other neurodevelopmental disorders
	24.15 Future perspectives
	24.16 Conclusion
	References
25 Probiotics in the prevention and control of foodborne diseases in humans
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Foodborne diseases
		25.2.1 Foodborne pathogens and diseases
		25.2.2 Pathogenicity mechanisms of foodborne pathogens
	25.3 Probiotics
		25.3.1 Factors affecting probiotic activity and benefits
			25.3.1.1 Sources
			25.3.1.2 Probiotics formulations and encapsulation
	25.4 Antimicrobial potential of probiotics against foodborne pathogens
		25.4.1 Salmonella
		25.4.2 Campylobacter
		25.4.3 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli
		25.4.4 Listeria monocytogenes
		25.4.5 Antiviral activity of probiotics
		25.4.6 Antifungal and antimycotoxin activities of probiotics
	25.5 Probiotics mechanisms of action in the control and prevention of foodborne pathogens
		25.5.1 Physical interaction with the epithelium
			25.5.1.1 Adherence capacity
			25.5.1.2 Production of mucus
			25.5.1.3 Reinforcement of the intestinal barrier
		25.5.2 Interaction between probiotics and the immune system
		25.5.3 Bacteria–bacteria interaction (competition by exclusion)
		25.5.4 Secretion of antimicrobial substances
		25.5.5 Interference in the signaling system to express virulence
		25.5.6 Preventing the production of the toxin
		25.5.7 Interaction between probiotics and bacterial pathogens
		25.5.8 Interaction between probiotics and foodborne viruses
	25.6 Supplementation of probiotics in food materials
	25.7 Delivery system of probiotics
	25.8 The safety of probiotic therapy in host
	25.9 Health significance of probiotics in the prevention of foodborne diseases
	25.10 Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgment
	References
26 Role of probiotics in the management of respiratory infections
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Respiratory tract infections
		26.2.1 Treatment
	26.3 In search of new therapeutic strategies: microbiota and gut-lung axis
	26.4 Pulmonary microbiota in diseases
		26.4.1 Role of microbiota during respiratory disorders
	26.5 History of probiotics
	26.6 Probiotic usage and safety
	26.7 Probiotic administration in respiratory infections
		26.7.1 Methodological and clinical aspects
		26.7.2 Probiotic and respiratory infections
		26.7.3 Probiotic and respiratory viral infections
	26.8 Conclusion
	References
27 The role of probiotics in nutritional health: probiotics as nutribiotics
	27.1 Nutribiotics: ways to improve the nutritional status
		27.1.1 Probiotics: source, variety, and potential
		27.1.2 Postbiotics: bioactive probiotic products
	27.2 Nutritional health benefits of probiotics and postbiotics
		27.2.1 Undernutrition situations
			27.2.1.1 Children nutritional deficiencies
			27.2.1.2 Pregnant women nutritional deficiencies
			27.2.1.3 Elderly nutritional deficiencies
		27.2.2 Overnutrition situations
			27.2.2.1 Cardiovascular diseases
			27.2.2.2 Metabolic disorders
			27.2.2.3 Malnutrition and other health disorders
				27.2.2.3.1 Gastrointestinal disorders
				27.2.2.3.2 Pathogens infection
				27.2.2.3.3 Food intolerances
	27.3 Encapsulation technology for the development of functional ingredients
	27.4 Current market of probiotics and future perspectives
	27.5 Conclusions
	References
28 Role of immunobiotic lactic acid bacteria as vaccine adjuvants
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Vaccine adjuvants
	28.3 Probiotic lactic acid bacteria
		28.3.1 Immunobiotics
		28.3.2 Probiotic LAB as immunobiotics
		28.3.3 Probiotic LAB as novel vaccine adjuvants
		28.3.4 Experimental studies on adjuvant properties of probiotic LAB
		28.3.5 Bacterium-like particles from LAB as mucosal adjuvants
		28.3.6 Adjuvant potential of biosurfactants produced by LAB
		28.3.7 Adjuvant potential of LAB ghost cells
	28.4 Conclusions
	References
29 Probiotics: past, present, and future challenges
	29.1 Probiotics—the concept
	29.2 Probiotics—modern trends
		29.2.1 Definition and classification of probiotics
			29.2.1.1 Criteria, selection, and application of probiotic strains
			29.2.1.2 Characteristics of probiotic strains
			29.2.1.3 Lactobacillus bulgaricus—a unique probiotic
	29.3 Viability of probiotic bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract and their secondary reproduction: probiotic concentration
	29.4 Dose of probiotics
	29.5 Safety of probiotic bacteria
	29.6 Health effects of probiotics
		29.6.1 Prevention and treatment with probiotics
			29.6.1.1 Probiotics and diseases of the gastrointestinal tract
			29.6.1.2 Hepatoprotective effect of probiotic bacteria
			29.6.1.3 The radiation protection effect of probiotics
			29.6.1.4 Antitumor and antimutagenic effect of probiotic bacteria—a problem with a wide social response
	29.7 Probiotics and metabolic syndrome
	29.8 Probiotics and urogenital infections
	29.9 Probiotics and immunity
	29.10 Probiotics and mental illness called Plus Ultra
	29.11 The next 45 years
	29.12 Summary
	29.13 Probiotics and Covid-19: data supporting the use of probiotics to prevent Covid-19
	29.14 Conclusion
	References
30 Probiotics: health safety considerations
	30.1 Introduction
		30.1.1 Risk of probiotic-originated infections
			30.1.1.1 Adverse effects due to lactic acid bacteria
		30.1.2 Adverse effects due to Bifidobacter
		30.1.3 Adverse effects due to Saccharomyces boulardii
		30.1.4 Use of probiotics in cancer patients
		30.1.5 Use of probiotics in pregnant woman and infants
		30.1.6 Use of probiotics in immunocompromised patients and immunomodulation
		30.1.7 Antibiotic resistance and horizontal gene transfer in probiotics
		30.1.8 Harmful metabolic activities of probiotics and production of host deleterious metabolites
		30.1.9 Ways of enhancing probiotics safety and some regulatory guidelines
		30.1.10 Adverse effects of probiotics on animals
		30.1.11 Safety of genetically engineered probiotics
		30.1.12 Combination of probiotics and plant extracts for enhancing probiotics performance
	30.2 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	Declaration of competing interest
	References
31 Probiotics: current regulatory aspects of probiotics for use in different disease conditions
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 Current regulation bodies that include probiotics
	31.3 Regulations for use of probiotics in gastrointestinal diseases
		31.3.1 Probiotics and acute gastroenteritis
		31.3.2 Probiotics and inflammatory bowel diseases
			31.3.2.1 Crohn’s disease
			31.3.2.2 Ulcerative colitis
			31.3.2.3 Pouchitis
		31.3.3 Probiotics and irritable bowel syndrome
		31.3.4 Probiotics and antibiotic-associated diarrhea including C. difficile-associated diarrhea
		31.3.5 Probiotics and Helicobacter pylori
		31.3.6 Recommendations for the use of probiotics in intestinal diseases by geographic location
	31.4 Regulations for use of probiotics in diseases other than gastrointestinal diseases
		31.4.1 Probiotics and allergies
		31.4.2 Probiotics and anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders
		31.4.3 Probiotics and wound healing and wound infection
		31.4.4 Probiotics and common acute infections
	31.5 Conclusions
	References
Index
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