Probiotics in food safety and human health

TABLE OF CONTENTS......Page 0
Probiotics in Food Safety and Human Health......Page 2
PREFACE......Page 4
THE EDITORS......Page 6
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 9
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 13
CONTENTS......Page 14
1.1.1 History......Page 16
1.1.2 Definitions......Page 17
1.1.3 Administration and Consumption of Probiotics......Page 20
1.2.2 Microbiota of the Human Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 22
1.3.1 Examples of Probiotic Microorganisms......Page 28
1.3.2 Selection of Appropriate Strains......Page 33
1.3.3 Functional Properties......Page 35
1.4 Prebiotics......Page 37
1.5 Conclusions......Page 39
References......Page 40
2.1.1 History of Probiotics......Page 49
2.2.1 Role of Intestinal Microbial Flora in Digestion and Release of Nutrients......Page 50
2.2.3 Disorders Associated with Disturbed Intestinal Flora......Page 51
2.3.1.1.1 Acid and Bile Tolerance......Page 52
2.3.1.1.4 Immunoassays......Page 53
2.3.1.2 Gut Model Reactors......Page 55
2.3.1.3.1 Cultivation-Dependent Techniques......Page 56
2.3.1.3.3 Percentage of Guanine+Cytosine Profiling......Page 58
2.3.1.3.4 PCR-Based Identification and Detection Techniques......Page 59
2.3.1.3.5 Whole-Cell Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization......Page 60
2.3.2 Animal Trials......Page 61
2.3.3 Human Trials......Page 62
2.4.1.2 Stimulation of the Immune System......Page 63
2.4.1.6 Allergies......Page 64
2.4.1.10 Urogenital Tract Infections......Page 65
2.5.1 Application of Probiotic Cultures in Food Products......Page 66
2.5.1.2 Other Food Products......Page 67
2.6 Conclusions......Page 68
References......Page 69
3.1 Introduction......Page 81
3.2 Identification and Classification......Page 83
3.3 The Physiology of Probiotic Bacteria......Page 92
References......Page 98
4.1 Introduction......Page 104
4.2 Delivery of Probiotics......Page 105
4.3 Where Do Probiotic Bacteria Come from?......Page 108
4.4 Species Used as Probiotic Cultures......Page 109
4.5 What Is Known about Selection Criteria for Probiotic Cultures......Page 111
4.5.2 Beta-Galactosidase Activity......Page 112
4.5.4 Bacteriocin Production......Page 113
4.5.6 Competition for Iron......Page 114
4.6 How Will the Genomic Era Provide the Knowledge Base for a Scientific Selection Process for Probiotic Cultures?......Page 115
References......Page 117
CONTENTS......Page 121
5.1 Introduction......Page 122
5.2.1.2 Potency Properties......Page 123
5.2.1.6 Commercial-Scale Production......Page 125
5.2.2.2 Persistence within the Target......Page 126
5.2.2.7 Safety......Page 127
5.3.1.1 Lactobacillus Species in General......Page 128
5.3.1.2 Lactobacillus rhamnosus......Page 129
5.3.1.3 Lactobacillus reuteri......Page 130
5.3.1.4 Bifidobacterium species......Page 131
5.3.1.6 Lactobacillus casei......Page 132
5.3.1.7 Other Lactobacilli......Page 133
5.3.1.8 Saccharomyces boulardii......Page 134
5.4 Evidence-Based Probiotics......Page 136
5.4.1 Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea......Page 137
5.4.3 Traveler’s Diarrhea......Page 138
5.4.5 Treatment of Acute Diarrhea......Page 139
References......Page 140
6.1 Introduction......Page 150
6.2 Development of Improved Genetic Tools......Page 152
6.2.1 Transformation......Page 153
6.2.2 Food-Grade Markers......Page 155
6.2.3 Manipulation of the Probiotic Genome through Homologous Recombination......Page 156
6.3 Genomic Dissection of Probiotics......Page 157
6.4.1 Accentuate Functionality......Page 158
6.4.2 Improved Technological Suitability......Page 161
6.4.3 Modification of Nonprobiotic Strains toward Improving Health......Page 162
6.5 Functional Genomics and Proteomics......Page 164
6.6 Safety Legislation and Risk Assessment......Page 165
Acknowledgments......Page 167
References......Page 168
CONTENTS......Page 176
7.1 Antigenic Molecules and Structures Associated with Probiotic Characteristics......Page 177
7.2 Application of Immunochemical Techniques to Potentially Detect Probiotic Bacteria......Page 178
7.3.1.1. Preparation of Bacterial Antigens......Page 182
7.3.1.2 Purification of Bacterial Proteins......Page 183
7.3.2.1 Production of Polyclonal Antibodies (Antisera)......Page 184
7.3.2.2 Preparation and Production of Monoclonal Antibodies......Page 186
7.3.3.1 Labeling Antibodies with Fluorochromes......Page 188
7.3.3.2 Labeling Antibodies with Biotin......Page 189
7.3.3.3 Labeling Antibodies with Enzymes......Page 190
7.3.4.2 Noncompetitive Indirect ELISA......Page 191
7.3.4.3 Competitive Sequential ELISA......Page 193
7.3.4.5 Immunoblotting or Western Blot......Page 194
7.3.4.6 Dot Blot......Page 195
7.4 Conclusions......Page 196
References......Page 197
8.1 Introduction......Page 201
8.2.1 Isolation of DNA......Page 203
8.2.2 Primers for Identification of Probiotic Bacteria......Page 204
8.2.3 PCR-Based Identification Methods......Page 208
8.2.4 Restriction Enzyme Analysis-Based Identification Methods......Page 210
8.3 Future Directions......Page 211
References......Page 212
CONTENTS......Page 217
9.1 Introduction......Page 218
9.2.1 Sample Treatment......Page 219
9.2.1.2 Freeze-Dried Products......Page 220
9.2.2.1 Culture Media......Page 221
9.2.4.1 Enumeration......Page 223
9.2.5 Identification–Repetitive Element Sequence-Based (rep-) PCR......Page 224
9.2.5.2 Total DNA Extraction......Page 225
9.2.5.3 rep-PCR Fingerprinting......Page 227
9.3 Culture-Independent Analysis......Page 228
9.3.1 Principle......Page 230
9.3.2.2 PCR......Page 231
9.3.2.3 DGGE Analysis......Page 232
9.3.2.4 Processing of DGGE Gels......Page 234
9.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives......Page 235
References......Page 236
10.1 Introduction......Page 239
10.2.2 Chromosomal Modification Systems......Page 241
10.3.2 Engineering Strains with Genes from Other LAB or Other Bacteria......Page 243
10.4 Molecular Phenotyping of LAB......Page 245
10.5 Gene Expression and Its Measurement......Page 250
10.6 Risk Assessment and Regulatory Controversies......Page 251
References......Page 255
11.1 Introduction......Page 261
11.2 History of Probiotic Use in Animals......Page 262
11.3 Use of Probiotics for Animal Production......Page 263
11.4 Infectious Disease Prevention......Page 265
11.5.1 Cattle......Page 267
11.5.2 Poultry......Page 271
11.6 Selection Criteria for Preharvest Food Safety Probiotics......Page 274
References......Page 277
12.1 Introduction......Page 283
12.2 Rationale for Preharvest Intervention......Page 284
12.3 Competitive Exclusion Cultures and Probiotics......Page 285
12.3.1 Competitive Exclusion Cultures......Page 286
12.3.2 Probiotics......Page 287
12.4 Practical Issues in Culture Development and Application......Page 288
References......Page 289
13.1 Introduction......Page 295
13.2 Probiotic Bacteria in Food Safety Applications......Page 296
13.2.1.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Bifidobacteria against Pathogenic Microorganisms......Page 297
13.2.1.2 Use of Bifidobacteria in Food Preservation......Page 298
13.2.2.1 Antimicrobial Properties of Lactobacillus......Page 300
13.2.2.2 Bacteriocins Produced by Lactobacillus......Page 302
13.2.2.3 Use of Lactobacilli Bacteriocins in Food Preservation......Page 304
13.2.3 Other Bacteriocin Producing Lactic Acid Bacteria......Page 305
13.3 Conclusions......Page 308
References......Page 310
CONTENTS......Page 318
14.1 Introduction Development of Efficacious Functional Foods for Intestinal Health......Page 319
14.2.1.1 Development and Application of High Throughput Molecular Methods for Studying the Human Gut Microbiota in Relation to Diet and Health — MICROBE DIAGNOSTICS......Page 320
14.2.2.1 Probiotic Strains with Designed Health Properties — DEPROHEALTH......Page 324
14.2.2.2 Molecular Analysis and Mechanistic Elucidation of the Functionality of Probiotics and Prebiotics in the Inhibition of Pathogenic Microorganisms to Combat Gastrointestinal Disorders and to Improve Human Health — PROPATH......Page 326
14.2.2.3 Functional Assessment of Interactions between the Human Gut Microbiota and the Host — EU & MICROFUNCTION......Page 327
14.2.3.1 Probiotics and Gastrointestinal Disorders: Controlled Trials of European Union Patients — PROGID......Page 328
14.2.3.2 Functional Food, Gut Microflora, and Healthy Aging — CROWNALIFE......Page 330
14.2.3.3 Biosafety Evaluation of Probiotic Lactic Acid Bacteria Used for Human Consumption — PROSAFE......Page 331
14.2.4.1 Nutritional Enhancement of Probiotics and Prebiotics: Technology Aspects on Microbial Viability, Stability, Functionality, and on Prebiotic Function — PROTECH......Page 334
14.3 Consumers and Perceived Health Benefits of Probiotics......Page 335
14.4 Conclusions......Page 340
References......Page 341
CONTENTS......Page 349
15.2 Forces Driving Intestinal Homeostasis as Targets of Probiotics......Page 350
15.3.1 Probiotic Bacteria: Where Do They Come From?......Page 352
15.3.2 Survival at Low pH and Resistance to Bile Acids......Page 354
15.3.4 Bacterial Interference......Page 355
15.4.1 Adhesion to Intestinal Epithelial Cells......Page 356
15.4.1.1 Epithelial Receptors Involved in Bacterial Binding......Page 357
15.4.2.1 Competitive Exclusion......Page 358
15.4.2.2 Mucus Secretion......Page 359
15.4.3.1 Transepithelial Electrical Resistance and Intestinal Permeability......Page 360
15.4.3.3 Antiapoptotic Effect......Page 361
15.5.1.1 Secretory IgA Immunity......Page 362
15.5.2 Cross Talk between Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Commensal-Probiotic Bacteria: Downregulation of Inflammation?......Page 363
15.5.2.1 Cytokine Release by Epithelial Cells......Page 364
References......Page 365
16.1 Introduction......Page 372
16.2 Epidemiological Studies......Page 373
16.3.2 Laboratory Animal Studies......Page 374
16.3.3 In Vitro Studies......Page 376
16.4.1 Binding and Degrading Potential Carcinogens......Page 377
16.4.2 Production of Antitumorigenic or Antimutagenic Compounds......Page 378
16.4.4 Quantitative and Qualitative Alterations in the Intestinal Microflora......Page 379
16.4.6 Enhancing the Host’s Immune Response......Page 380
16.4.7 Effects on Physiology of the Host......Page 381
16.5 Conclusions......Page 382
References......Page 383
17.1 Introduction......Page 389
17.2 Approach to Testing the Efficacy of Probiotics......Page 391
17.3.1 In Vitro and In Vivo Animal Studies......Page 392
Internal and External Validity......Page 397
Power and sample size......Page 401
17.3.2.2 Randomized Experimental Studies......Page 402
17.3.2.3 Quasi-experimental Studies......Page 404
17.3.2.4 Causal Comparative and Correlational Studies......Page 406
17.4 Concluding Remarks......Page 407
References......Page 408
CONTENTS......Page 411
18.2.1 Relevance for Probiotics......Page 412
18.3.1 Acute Toxicity......Page 413
18.3.2 Endocarditis Model......Page 414
18.3.4 Metabolism......Page 415
18.3.6 Resistance to Human Serum-Mediated Killing......Page 416
18.3.8 Platelet Aggregation......Page 417
18.3.10.1 Culturing of Intestinal Cells......Page 418
18.3.10.2 Adhesion to Intestinal Cells......Page 419
18.3.12 Mucinolytic Activity......Page 420
18.5 The Importance of Taxonomy......Page 421
18.7 Next-Generation Probiotics......Page 426
18.8 Legislation Evaluation of Lactic Acid Bacteria......Page 427
18.9 Conclusions......Page 428
References......Page 429
CONTENTS......Page 436
19.1 Introduction......Page 437
19.2.2 Legal Definition and Regulation of Fermented Milk in Japan......Page 438
19.2.3 Food Labeling......Page 441
19.3.1 Health Status of Japanese......Page 444
19.3.2 History of Functional Foods and FOSHU......Page 445
19.3.3 Current Status of FOSHU......Page 446
19.4.1 Appearance of Probiotics with FOSHU Health Claims......Page 448
19.4.2 Conditions for FOSHU Approval......Page 450
19.4.3 Scientific Evidence of Probiotics in FOSHU Health Claims......Page 452
19.4.4 Guidelines for FOSHU Application and Evaluation......Page 453
19.4.5 Dietary Exposure and Safety......Page 455
19.5.1 Efficacy of Probiotics......Page 456
19.5.3 International Harmonization......Page 460
19.5.4 Regulation on Drugs and Foods......Page 461
19.6 Conclusion......Page 463
Abbreviations......Page 464
References......Page 465