Privatizing War: Private Military and Security Companies under Public International Law

Contents......Page 7
Foreword......Page 11
Acknowledgements......Page 19
Table of cases......Page 21
Acronyms......Page 35
Introduction......Page 39
1 Does the UN Charter prohibit delegation to private companies of states´ right to use armed force in self-defence?......Page 48
2 Private military and security companies in peace support operations......Page 55
2.1.1 Consent......Page 59
2.1.2 Impartiality......Page 61
2.1.3 Use of force in self-defence or defence of the mandate......Page 63
2.1.3.i Use of force and combatant status......Page 65
2.2 The rules on establishing peace forces and PMSCs......Page 66
2.2.1 Delegation of the conduct of a peace operation to PMSC......Page 67
2.2.1.i Implied powers......Page 69
2.2.1.ii The specific rules on delegation......Page 73
2.2.2 Rules on whether the UNSG/UNSC may incorporate a PMSC as the sole contribution of a member state......Page 76
2.2.3 Article 43 and/or the establishment of a standby UN force composed of PMSCs......Page 80
2.3.1 Discipline......Page 86
2.3.2 Status of Forces Agreements......Page 87
2.4 Regional organizations conducting peace operations and PMSCs......Page 88
2.5 Conclusion......Page 90
3 Humanitarian organizations and the use of PMSCs......Page 91
4 The prohibition of privateering and the use of private military and security companies......Page 94
5.1 Treaty law......Page 104
5.2 Customary law?......Page 110
B The limits imposed by the laws of war - jus in bello......Page 118
1 Treaty-based limitations on the use of PMSCs......Page 120
1.1 Administration of POW and internment camps......Page 121
1.2 Requisitions......Page 126
2.1.1 The conduct of hostilities......Page 129
2.1.1.i Military advantage and the principles of necessity and proportionality......Page 131
2.1.1.ii Distinction......Page 140
2.1.1.iv Conclusion on conduct of hostilities......Page 144
2.1.2 Judicial/tribunal-type decision making......Page 145
2.1.3 Maintenance of law and order and public safety......Page 146
2.1.4 Making agreements with the other parties to the conflict......Page 147
2.2 Limits resulting from the rules on responsibility in IHL......Page 148
1 The legality of delegating law enforcement under IHRL......Page 151
1.1 Policing and detention......Page 156
1.2 Administration of justice......Page 163
D Good faith......Page 164
1 The principle of good faith in international law......Page 165
2 Good faith and PMSCs......Page 168
E Conclusion......Page 171
2  The international responsibility of states and its relevance for PMSCs*......Page 172
1 A PMSC as a de jure state organ......Page 174
1.1 The primacy of the domestic legal order in defining state organs......Page 175
1.2 The exceptional case of state organs defined by international law......Page 180
2.1 The general regime of state responsibility for de jure organs......Page 196
2.2 Is there a special responsibility for armed forces in times of international armed conflict?......Page 199
B The attribution to states of acts of PMSCs under Article 5 ASR......Page 203
1.1 A PMSC as an `entity´ according to Article 5......Page 204
1.2 The empowerment of the PMSC to exercise `elements of governmental authority´......Page 205
2 The elements of governmental authority......Page 210
2.1 Elements of governmental authority in the ILC Commentary on the ASR......Page 211
2.2 Elements of governmental authority in the discussions during the drafting of Article 5 ASR......Page 213
2.3.1 Elements of governmental authority in the law of state immunity......Page 216
2.3.2 Elements of governmental authority in WTO law......Page 220
2.3.3 Elements of governmental authority in Article 6(1) of the European Convention on Human Rights and in the Rome Treaty......Page 223
2.3.4 Elements of governmental authority in domestic law (France)......Page 228
2.3.5 `Inherently governmental´ activities in US practice......Page 230
2.3.6 Conclusion on the notion of elements of governmental authority and its relevance for the responsibility of states for the conduct of PMSCs......Page 236
C The attribution of the conduct of PMSCs to states under Article 8 ASR......Page 242
1 Instructions......Page 243
2.1 Direction......Page 247
2.2 Control......Page 248
3 The criterion of `instigation´......Page 259
D Concluding remarks on the attribution of the activities of PMSCs to states......Page 261
E The responsibility of states for activities of PMSCs due to a lack of due diligence......Page 263
1 Preliminary considerations on due diligence......Page 264
2.1 Obligations of due diligence in the law of neutrality......Page 266
2.2 Due diligence in IHRL......Page 268
2.3 Due diligence towards specific categories of persons and objects in the Hague Regulations and Geneva Conventions......Page 274
2.4 A global duty of due diligence in IHL by virtue of Article 1 common to the Geneva Conventions......Page 282
3.1 The duty to regulate and to possess an adequate administrative system to carry out ones international obligations: a duty common to all states......Page 289
3.2 The obligation to intervene when there is information that a violation of IHL or human rights is likely to occur......Page 294
3.3 The obligation to investigate allegations and repress violations......Page 297
4.1 States remain bound by their international obligations when they use PMSCs......Page 300
4.2 States must ensure an equivalent protection of rights when activities are delegated to PMSCs......Page 301
4.3 The duty to contract with PMSCs that respect IHL and IHRL......Page 305
4.4 Contracting states shall ensure that PMSC personnel know their duties under IHL and human rights and are trained accordingly......Page 307
4.5 The contracting state should ensure that persons likely to violate IHL will not be hired......Page 311
4.6 Contracting states must take measures to stop ongoing violations of human rights and humanitarian law......Page 312
4.7 Contracting states should appoint contracting officers to monitor the execution of the contracts......Page 314
4.8 Contracting officers should ensure that violations of IHL and IHRL are known and punished......Page 315
5 Implications for territorial states to ensure respect of IHL and human rights......Page 318
6 Implications for home states to ensure that human rights and humanitarian law are respected......Page 320
F Conclusion......Page 324
3  The legal means through which PMSCs are bound by IHL......Page 326
1.1 Preliminary remarks on the conceptions of international personality......Page 327
1.2 The debate on the international personality of companies and its (ir)relevance for PMSCs......Page 331
2 Beyond international personality: alternative avenues for binding PMSCs......Page 343
2.1 The regime of state responsibility and attribution......Page 345
2.2.1 IHL......Page 351
2.2.2 IHRL......Page 354
2.3 The doctrine of corporate complicity......Page 361
2.4 Self-regulation and corporate codes of conduct......Page 373
2.5 Internal legal mechanisms......Page 377
B PMSCs as the sum of their individual employees......Page 388
1 IHL: an inter-state law with individuals as addressees......Page 389
1.1 From abstract entities to individuals as direct addressees: IHL and the principle of effectiveness......Page 390
1.2 Repression of IHL violations......Page 392
1.2.1.i Grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions and Additional Protocol I......Page 393
1.2.1.ii War crimes......Page 396
1.2.2 Non-criminalized provisions of IHL: a matter of domestic law......Page 400
1.3 Dissemination of IHL......Page 401
2 The direct applicability of IHL to individuals......Page 404
2.1.1 The origins of the concept of `self-executing´ treaties......Page 405
2.1.2 Subsequent interpretations of the notion of `self-executing´: selected cases relating to the 1949 Geneva Conventions......Page 407
2.1.3 Consensual understanding of the concept of `self-executing´......Page 410
2.2.1 IHL as customary law: meaning and advantages......Page 414
2.2.2 The direct applicability of customary IHL......Page 418
4  The legal rules applicable to PMSCs and their personnel......Page 421
A Establishing the status of PMSC personnel under IHL......Page 423
1 PMSCs and combatant or fighter status......Page 424
1.1 International armed conflicts: are they combatants?......Page 426
1.1.1 Article 4A(1) GC III......Page 427
1.1.2 Article 4A(2) GC III......Page 430
1.1.2.i Belonging to a party (chapeau)......Page 431
1.1.2.ii Commanded by a person responsible for his subordinates......Page 439
1.1.2.iii Fixed distinctive sign......Page 440
1.1.2.iv Carrying arms openly......Page 442
1.1.2.v Conducting operations in accordance with IHL......Page 443
1.1.2.vi Conclusion on Article 4A(2) GC IV......Page 444
1.1.3 Article 43 AP I......Page 446
1.2.1 `Combatant´ status in non-international armed conflicts......Page 450
1.2.2 Status of members of armed groups or units?......Page 453
2.1 PMSCs as civilians accompanying the armed forces......Page 456
2.2.1 Civilians: international armed conflicts......Page 459
2.2.2 Non-participants: non-international armed conflicts......Page 460
2.3 `Unlawful combatants´?......Page 461
2.4 Mercenaries?......Page 464
2.5 Conclusion on the status of PMSC personnel under IHL......Page 467
B The impact of civilian status on the rights and duties of PMSCs: direct participation in hostilities......Page 469
1 Consequences for PMSCs of directly participating in hostilities......Page 470
2 Concept, elements and time frame of direct participation in hostilities: what counts are specific acts......Page 474
2.1 Specific act......Page 475
2.2 Constitutive elements......Page 476
2.2.1 `Threshold of harm´......Page 477
2.2.2 `Direct causation´......Page 483
2.2.3 `Belligerent nexus´......Page 488
2.3 Beginning and end of direct participation in hostilities......Page 490
C The use of force by PMSC personnel in self-defence......Page 493
1 The right to life does not entail an unqualified right to self-defence......Page 495
2 Elements of self-defence from domestic criminal law, interpreted in the light of IHL......Page 499
2.1 Defence of self, defence of others and defence of property......Page 500
2.2 The attack being defended against must have been unlawful......Page 502
2.2.1 Unlawful due to the objective of the attack?......Page 504
2.2.2 The concept of attack justifying self-defence modified by IHL......Page 505
2.2.3 Unlawful due to the identity, status or other characteristics of the attackers?......Page 507
2.2.4 Unlawful due to means and/or methods of the attackers?......Page 508
2.2.5 Does this analysis work in practice?......Page 512
2.3 The use of force in response must be necessary......Page 514
2.3.1 Imminence of the threat......Page 515
2.3.2 Duty to retreat......Page 516
2.4 The use of force must be proportionate......Page 519
3 Scenarios on self-defence for a private armed guard of an occupation administration compound321......Page 522
3.2 Scenario two: anticipated car bomb attack......Page 523
3.3 Scenario three: attempted theft of property by civilians......Page 524
1 Identifying the applicable rules......Page 527
2 Law enforcement rules under IHL......Page 530
3 Law enforcement and human rights law......Page 533
4.1.1 Applicable framework governing the use of force and firearms in law enforcement operations......Page 537
4.1.2 The prohibition of arbitrary deprivation of life and its related obligations for PMSCs......Page 543
4.2.1 Applicable legal framework for arrests and captures in times of armed conflicts......Page 550
4.2.2 The obligations of PMSCs regarding arrest and capture in times of armed conflict......Page 555
1 Meeting the standards and conditions of internment and detention for POWs and civilians......Page 562
2 Fundamental rights and freedoms......Page 565
3 Recruitment......Page 567
4 Providing aid......Page 568
F Conclusion......Page 575
A Implementation of state responsibility......Page 577
1.1.1 Determining which state(s) may invoke responsibility......Page 578
1.1.2 Settling disputes arising from the establishment of international responsibility......Page 580
2 The review of implementation through treaty-body procedures......Page 582
3.1 A right to reparation under IHL?......Page 584
3.1.1 Arguments in favour of recognition of the right to reparation under IHL......Page 585
3.1.2 Scepticism concerning the existence of a right to reparation under IHL......Page 587
3.1.3 The existence of the right to reparation under IHL......Page 590
3.1.4 Mechanisms for individual complaints against states under IHL......Page 596
3.1.5 Ex gratia compensation and reparations?......Page 602
3.2 Implementation of the right to reparation for violations of IHL before human rights mechanisms......Page 604
B The means by which states can regulate the conduct and define the legal responsibility of PMSCs......Page 608
1 International regulation......Page 609
2 National regulation......Page 613
C Establishing international criminal responsibility......Page 620
1 Corporate criminal responsibility......Page 621
1.1 Second World War jurisprudence and the Nuremberg Industrialist cases......Page 622
1.2 Corporate criminal responsibility and the Rome Statute......Page 628
1.3 Corporate criminal responsibility in national jurisdictions......Page 633
2 Individual criminal responsibility......Page 635
2.2 The PMSC employee as the instigator of an international crime......Page 637
2.3 PMSC employees who aid, abet or otherwise assist the commission of an unlawful act......Page 639
2.4 Participation in the commission of a crime in concert or joint criminal enterprise......Page 645
2.5 Command responsibility......Page 651
3 Prosecuting individuals in national legal systems......Page 661
4 Conclusion......Page 664
D Establishing civil responsibility......Page 665
1.1.1 Liability of individuals......Page 669
1.1.2.i For acts committed by themselves......Page 671
1.1.2.ii Liability of PMSCs for their subsidiaries and business partners......Page 675
1.2 Liability of PMSCs and their personnel as state agents......Page 677
1.3 Establishing the civil responsibility of PMSCs and their personnel as accomplices of international law violations......Page 681
2.1 Lack of personal jurisdiction......Page 686
2.2 Forum non conveniens......Page 688
2.3 Non-justiciable issues......Page 691
2.4 Immunities......Page 697
3 Conclusion......Page 699
E Implementing PMSC responsibility through self-regulation......Page 700
General Conclusion......Page 710
Selected bibliography......Page 716
Index......Page 746