Principles of snow hydrology

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 9
Book Cover......Page 10
1.1 Perceptions of snow......Page 11
1.2 History of snow hydrology......Page 17
1.3 Snow hydrology research basins......Page 20
1.4 Properties of water, ice, and snow......Page 23
1.4.1 Nature of liquid water and ice molecules......Page 24
1.4.3 Snowpack water equivalent......Page 27
1.5 References......Page 28
2.1 Snowfall formation......Page 30
2.1.1 Ice crystal and snowflake formation in clouds......Page 31
2.1.2 Orographic lifting......Page 32
2.1.3 Frontal activity......Page 34
2.1.5 Lake-effect snowfalls......Page 35
2.1.6 El Nino/La Nina Southern Oscillation effects......Page 38
2.2 Blowing snow......Page 39
2.2.1 Modes of blowing-snow transport......Page 40
2.2.2 Factors influencing blowing snow......Page 41
2.2.4 Modelling blowing snow......Page 43
2.3 Snow interception by vegetation......Page 46
2.3.1 Factors affecting snow interception......Page 47
2.3.2 Modelling snow interception......Page 49
2.5 References......Page 54
3.1.1 Formation of rounded grains in dry snow......Page 58
3.1.2 Formation of faceted grains in dry snow......Page 61
3.1.3 Wet-snow metamorphism......Page 63
3.1.5 Snowpack density and densification......Page 64
3.2 Heat conduction in snowpacks......Page 67
3.3 Snowpack temperatures and cold content......Page 72
3.4 Liquid water in snow......Page 74
3.4.1 Liquid-water content of snow......Page 75
3.4.2 Theory of water movement in snow......Page 77
3.5 References......Page 84
Nonrecording gauges......Page 86
Recording gauges......Page 87
Minimizing or correcting for errors......Page 88
Case study intercomparison in Idaho......Page 91
Snow......Page 92
Total precipitation......Page 93
Snow stakes and aerial markers......Page 95
4.1.5 Other methods for measuring falling snow......Page 97
4.2.1 Snow-course surveys......Page 99
4.2.2 SNOwpack TELemetry (SNOTEL) system......Page 103
4.2.3 Other methods of measuring snow water equivalent (SWE)......Page 104
4.2.4 Liquid-water measurements......Page 107
Calorimetric analysis......Page 110
Freezing-calorimeter equipment and materials......Page 111
Melt-calorimetry approach......Page 112
4.2.5 Snow pits......Page 113
4.3 Snow-crystal imaging......Page 115
Secondary specimen holders (sampling plates)......Page 117
Preparing sampling plates......Page 119
Fractured samples......Page 120
Recording images with an SEM......Page 121
4.4 References......Page 122
5.1 The importance of snow......Page 128
Snow-water-equivalent methodology......Page 130
Snow-extent methodology......Page 132
5.2.3 Thermal infrared......Page 135
Snow water equivalent and associated applications......Page 136
Hand-drawn snow maps......Page 139
5.3.1 NOHRSC – snow-cover and snow-water-equivalent products......Page 140
5.3.2 Canadian prairie snow-water-equivalent mapping......Page 141
Norway power applications......Page 143
India runoff forecasts......Page 144
5.4.2 Improved algorithms in the passive microwave......Page 146
5.4.3 Outlook for radar applications......Page 147
5.4.4 Integration of various data types......Page 148
5.5 References......Page 149
6.1 Introduction......Page 156
6.2 Shortwave radiation exchange......Page 157
6.2.1 Incoming shortwave radiation......Page 158
6.2.2 Empirical estimation of incoming shortwave radiation......Page 161
6.2.3 Transmission of shortwave radiation......Page 162
6.2.4 Outgoing or reflected shortwave radiation......Page 163
6.3 Longwave radiation exchange......Page 166
6.4 Sensible heat convection......Page 169
6.5 Latent heat convection......Page 175
6.6 Rainfall energy......Page 179
6.7 Ground heat conduction......Page 181
6.8 Internal snowpack energy storage......Page 182
6.9 Melt energy......Page 184
6.10 Energy budget examples and applications......Page 186
6.11 References......Page 188
7.2 Topographic influences......Page 192
Direct-beam shortwave radiation on slopes......Page 193
Diffuse shortwave radiation on slopes......Page 197
7.2.2 Longwave radiation on slopes......Page 200
7.2.3 Topography and convection......Page 202
7.3.1 Shortwave radiation in forests......Page 203
7.3.2 Longwave radiation in forests......Page 209
7.3.3 Forest effects on wind speed and convection......Page 212
7.3.4 Forest energy budget examples......Page 215
7.4 References......Page 216
8.2 Snowfall and wet deposition......Page 221
8.3 Dry deposition on snowpacks......Page 225
8.4 Snowpack chemistry......Page 227
8.5.1 Melt fractionation......Page 231
8.5.2 Preferential elution......Page 234
8.6 Streamflow chemistry and snowmelt......Page 235
8.7 Snowpack stable isotopes......Page 237
8.8 References......Page 241
9.2 Snowpack water balance......Page 253
9.3 Snowpack storage and time lags......Page 255
9.3.1 Cold-content lag times......Page 256
9.3.2 Liquid-water holding capacity lag times......Page 257
9.3.3 Lag times in ripe snow......Page 258
9.4 Meltwater flow paths......Page 261
9.5 Frozen ground......Page 264
9.5.1 Predicting soil frost depth......Page 267
9.5.2 Infiltration rates and soil frost......Page 273
9.7 Snowmelt hydrographs......Page 274
9.8 Snowmelt and rain-on-snow floods......Page 279
9.9 Applications......Page 280
9.10 References......Page 281
10.1 Introduction......Page 284
10.2 Statistical snowmelt-runoff models......Page 285
10.3.1 Form of precipitation......Page 289
10.3.2.1 Degree-day melt computations......Page 292
10.3.2.2 Degree-day cold-content computations......Page 295
10.3.3 Point-snowmelt model algorithms......Page 297
10.4 Distributed-snowmelt models......Page 302
Snow-cover depletion curves......Page 304
10.4.2 Elevation......Page 307
10.4.3 Slope and aspect......Page 308
10.4.4 Forest cover......Page 309
10.4.6 Wind redistribution of snow......Page 310
10.4.7 Glaciers......Page 311
10.5 Snowmelt-runoff models......Page 312
10.6 Snowmelt-runoff model performance and selection......Page 316
10.8 References......Page 318
Range of conditions for model application......Page 324
11.2 Model structure......Page 331
Basin and zone areas......Page 332
Area–elevation curve......Page 333
Temperature and degree-days, T......Page 334
Precipitation, P......Page 335
Snow-covered area, S......Page 337
11.3.3 Parameters......Page 339
Runoff coefficient, c......Page 340
Degree-day factor, a......Page 342
Critical temperature, TCRIT......Page 344
Recession coefficient, k......Page 345
Time lag, L......Page 349
Accuracy criteria......Page 351
Elimination of possible errors......Page 353
Procedure for weekly forecasts of daily flows......Page 355
Updating......Page 363
11.6 Year-round runoff simulation for a changed climate......Page 364
11.6.1 Snowmelt-runoff computation in the winter half year......Page 365
Change of snow accumulation in the new climate......Page 366
Runoff simulation for scenarios of the future climate......Page 368
Model parameters in a changed climate......Page 377
Outlook......Page 378
Background......Page 379
Micro-SRM and WinSRM availability......Page 380
11.8 References......Page 381
12.1 Blowing-snow management......Page 383
12.1.1 Growth of snow drifts......Page 384
12.1.2 Constructed snow fences......Page 385
12.1.3 Living windbreaks......Page 387
12.2 Forest management......Page 388
12.2.1 Forest cutting and snow accumulation......Page 389
12.2.2 Forest cutting and snowpack ablation......Page 392
12.2.3 Forest cutting and snowmelt runoff......Page 395
12.3 Urban snow management......Page 397
12.4 Albedo modification......Page 399
12.5 Snow management in ski areas......Page 400
12.6 Climate change and snow hydrology......Page 404
12.7 References......Page 406
Appendix A Physical constants......Page 410
B.1 Potential solar irradiation on horizontal surfaces......Page 412
B.2 Potential Solar Irradiation on Sloping Surfaces......Page 416
B.2.1 Computing instantaneous potential irradiation on slope......Page 417
B.2.2 Computing daily potential irradiation on slope......Page 418
B.3 References......Page 420
Index......Page 421