Principles of Physics

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Brief Contents
......Page 16
Contents......Page 17
An Invitation to Physics......Page 37
1 Introduction and Vectors......Page 40
1.1 Standards of Length, Mass, and Time......Page 41
1.2 Dimensional Analysis......Page 44
1.3 Conversion of Units......Page 45
1.4 Order-of-Magnitude Calculations......Page 46
1.5 Significant Figures......Page 47
1.6 Coordinate Systems......Page 48
1.7 Vectors and Scalars......Page 50
1.8 Some Properties of Vectors......Page 51
1.9 Components of a Vector and Unit Vectors......Page 53
1.10 Modeling, Alternative Representations, and Problem-Solving Strategy......Page 58
Context 1 Alternative-Fuel Vehicles......Page 70
2 Motion in One Dimension......Page 73
2.1 Average Velocity......Page 74
2.2 Instantaneous Velocity......Page 77
2.3 Analysis Models—The Particle Under Constant Velocity......Page 81
2.4 Acceleration......Page 83
2.5 Motion Diagrams......Page 86
2.6 The Particle Under Constant Acceleration......Page 87
2.7 Freely Falling Objects......Page 91
2.8 Context Connection—Acceleration Required by Consumers......Page 95
3.1 The Position, Velocity, and Acceleration Vectors......Page 105
3.2 Two-Dimensional Motion with Constant Acceleration......Page 107
3.3 Projectile Motion......Page 109
3.4 The Particle in Uniform Circular Motion......Page 115
3.5 Tangential and Radial Acceleration......Page 118
3.6 Relative Velocity......Page 119
3.7 Context Connection: Lateral Acceleration of Automobiles......Page 122
4 The Laws of Motion......Page 132
4.1 The Concept of Force......Page 133
4.2 Newton's First Law......Page 134
4.3 Mass......Page 136
4.4 Newton's Second Law—The Particle Under a Net Force......Page 137
4.5 The Gravitational Force and Weight......Page 139
4.6 Newton's Third Law......Page 140
4.7 Applications of Newton's Laws......Page 143
4.8 Context Connection—Forces on Automobiles......Page 150
5 More Applications of Newton's Laws......Page 161
5.1 Forces of Friction......Page 162
5.2 Newton's Second Law Applied to a Particle in Uniform Circular Motion......Page 168
5.3 Nonuniform Circular Motion......Page 174
5.4 Motion in the Presence of Velocity-Dependent Resistive Forces......Page 176
5.5 The Fundamental Forces of Nature......Page 179
5.6 Context Connection—Drag Coefficients of Automobiles......Page 181
6 Energy and Energy Transfer......Page 192
6.2 Work Done by a Constant Force......Page 193
6.3 The Scalar Product of Two Vectors......Page 196
6.4 Work Done by a Varying Force......Page 198
6.5 Kinetic Energy and the Work–Kinetic Energy Theorem......Page 202
6.6 The Nonisolated System......Page 205
6.7 Situations Involving Kinetic Friction......Page 209
6.8 Power......Page 213
6.9 Context Connection—Horsepower Ratings of Automobiles......Page 215
7.1 Potential Energy of a System......Page 224
7.2 The Isolated System......Page 226
7.3 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces......Page 231
7.4 Conservative Forces and Potential Energy......Page 236
7.5 The Nonisolated System in Steady State......Page 238
7.6 Potential Energy for Gravitational and Electric Forces......Page 239
7.7 Energy Diagrams and Stability of Equilibrium......Page 242
7.8 Context Connection—Potential Energy in Fuels......Page 243
Context 1 Conclusion: Present and Future Possibilities......Page 256
Context 2 Mission to Mars......Page 259
8 Momentum and Collisions......Page 262
8.1 Linear Momentum and Its Conservation......Page 263
8.2 Impulse and Momentum......Page 267
8.3 Collisions......Page 269
8.4 Two-Dimensional Collisions......Page 275
8.5 The Center of Mass......Page 278
8.6 Motion of a System of Particles......Page 281
8.7 Context Connection—Rocket Propulsion......Page 284
9 Relativity......Page 295
9.1 The Principle of Newtonian Relativity......Page 296
9.2 The Michelson–Morley Experiment......Page 298
9.3 Einstein's Principle of Relativity......Page 299
9.4 Consequences of Special Relativity......Page 300
9.5 The Lorentz Transformation Equations......Page 308
9.6 Relativistic Momentum and the Relativistic Form of Newton's Laws......Page 311
9.7 Relativistic Energy......Page 312
9.8 Mass and Energy......Page 315
9.9 General Relativity......Page 316
9.10 Context Connection—From Mars to the Stars......Page 319
10 Rotational Motion......Page 327
10.1 Angular Position, Speed, and Acceleration......Page 328
10.2 Rotational Kinematics: The Rigid Object Under Constant Angular Acceleration......Page 331
10.3 Relations Between Rotational and Translational Quantities......Page 332
10.4 Rotational Kinetic Energy......Page 334
10.5 Torque and the Vector Product......Page 339
10.6 The Rigid Object in Equilibrium......Page 342
10.7 The Rigid Object Under a Net Torque......Page 345
10.8 Angular Momentum......Page 349
10.9 Conservation of Angular Momentum......Page 352
10.10 Precessional Motion of Gyroscopes......Page 355
10.11 Rolling Motion of Rigid Objects......Page 356
10.12 Context Connection—Turning the Spacecraft......Page 359
11 Gravity, Planetary Orbits, and the Hydrogen Atom......Page 373
11.1 Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation Revisited......Page 374
11.2 Structural Models......Page 377
11.3 Kepler's Laws......Page 378
11.4 Energy Considerations in Planetary and Satellite Motion......Page 381
11.5 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Theory of Hydrogen......Page 387
11.6 Context Connection—Changing from a Circular to an Elliptical Orbit......Page 393
CONTEXT 2 Conclusion A Successful Mission Plan......Page 403
CONTEXT 3 Earthquakes......Page 407
12 Oscillatory Motion......Page 409
12.1 Motion of a Particle Attached to a Spring......Page 410
12.2 Mathematical Representation of Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 411
12.3 Energy Considerations in Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 417
12.4 The Simple Pendulum......Page 420
12.5 The Physical Pendulum......Page 422
12.6 Damped Oscillations......Page 423
12.7 Forced Oscillations......Page 425
12.8 Context Connection—Resonance in Structures......Page 426
13 Mechanical Waves......Page 436
13.1 Propagation of a Disturbance......Page 437
13.2 The Wave Model......Page 439
13.3 The Traveling Wave......Page 441
13.4 The Speed of Transverse Waves on Strings......Page 444
13.5 Reflection and Transmission of Waves......Page 447
13.6 Rate of Energy Transfer by Sinusoidal Waves on Strings......Page 449
13.7 Sound Waves......Page 451
13.8 The Doppler Effect......Page 453
13.9 Context Connection—Seismic Waves......Page 457
14 Superposition and Standing Waves......Page 468
14.1 The Principle of Superposition......Page 469
14.2 Interference of Waves......Page 470
14.3 Standing Waves......Page 473
14.4 Standing Waves in Strings......Page 476
14.5 Standing Waves in Air Columns......Page 479
14.6 Beats: Interference in Time......Page 482
14.7 Nonsinusoidal Wave Patterns......Page 484
14.8 Context Connection—Building on Antinodes......Page 486
CONTEXT 3 Conclusion Minimizing the Risk......Page 495
CONTEXT 4 Search for the Titanic......Page 498
15 Fluid Mechanics......Page 500
15.1 Pressure......Page 501
15.2 Variation of Pressure with Depth......Page 502
15.4 Buoyant Forces and Archimedes's Principle......Page 506
15.5 Fluid Dynamics......Page 511
15.6 Streamlines and the Continuity Equation for Fluids......Page 512
15.7 Bernoulli's Equation......Page 514
15.8 Other Applications of Fluid Dynamics......Page 516
15.9 Context Connection: A Near Miss Even Before Leaving Southampton......Page 517
CONTEXT 4 Conclusion Finding and Visiting the Titanic......Page 529
CONTEXT 5 Global Warming......Page 533
16 Temperature and the Kinetic Theory of Gases......Page 535
16.1 Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics......Page 536
16.2 Thermometers and Temperature Scales......Page 537
16.3 Thermal Expansion of Solids and Liquids......Page 541
16.4 Macroscopic Description of an Ideal Gas......Page 546
16.5 The Kinetic Theory of Gases......Page 549
16.6 Distribution of Molecular Speeds......Page 554
16.7 Context Connection: The Atmospheric Lapse Rate......Page 556
17 Energy in Thermal Processes: The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 567
17.1 Heat and Internal Energy......Page 568
17.2 Specific Heat......Page 569
17.3 Latent Heat and Phase Changes......Page 572
17.4 Work in Thermodynamic Processes......Page 575
17.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 578
17.6 Some Applications of the First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 580
17.7 Molar Specific Heats of Ideal Gases......Page 583
17.8 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas......Page 586
17.9 Molar Specific Heats and the Equipartition of Energy......Page 587
17.10 Energy Transfer Mechanisms in Thermal Processes......Page 590
17.11 Context Connection: Energy Balance for the Earth......Page 594
18 Heat Engines, Entropy, and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 608
18.1 Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 609
18.3 The Carnot Engine......Page 611
18.4 Heat Pumps and Refrigerators......Page 614
18.5 An Alternative Statement of the Second Law......Page 615
18.6 Entropy......Page 616
18.7 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 619
18.8 Entropy Changes in Irreversible Processes......Page 621
18.9 Context Connection: The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine......Page 623
CONTEXT 5 Conclusion Predicting the Earth’s Surface Temperature......Page 633
Context 6: Lightning......Page 637
19 Electric Forces and Electric Fields......Page 639
19.2 Properties of Electric Charges......Page 640
19.3 Insulators and Conductors......Page 642
19.4 Coulomb's Law......Page 644
19.5 Electric Fields......Page 647
19.6 Electric Field Lines......Page 652
19.7 Motion of Charged Particles in a Uniform Electric Field......Page 654
19.8 Electric Flux......Page 657
19.9 Gauss's Law......Page 660
19.10 Application of Gauss's Law to Symmetric Charge Distributions......Page 662
19.11 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium......Page 666
19.12 Context Connection: The Atmospheric Electric Field......Page 667
20 Electric Potential and Capacitance......Page 678
20.1 Potential Difference and Electric Potential......Page 679
20.2 Potential Differences in a Uniform Electric Field......Page 681
20.3 Electric Potential and Electric Potential Energy Due to Point Charges......Page 683
20.4 Obtaining Electric Field from Electric Potential......Page 686
20.5 Electric Potential Due to Continuous Charge Distributions......Page 688
20.6 Electric Potential of a Charged Conductor......Page 691
20.7 Capacitance......Page 692
20.8 Combinations of Capacitors......Page 696
20.9 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor......Page 700
20.10 Capacitors with Dielectrics......Page 703
20.11 Context Connection: The Atmosphere as a Capacitor......Page 708
21 Current and Direct Current Circuits......Page 719
21.1 Electric Current......Page 720
21.2 Resistance and Ohm's Law......Page 723
21.3 Superconductors......Page 727
21.4 A Structural Model for Electrical Conduction......Page 728
21.5 Electric Energy and Power......Page 732
21.6 Sources of emf......Page 735
21.7 Resistors in Series and in Parallel......Page 736
21.8 Kirchhoff's Rules......Page 741
21.9 RC Circuits......Page 744
21.10 Context Connection: The Atmosphere as a Conductor......Page 748
CONTEXT 6 Conclusion Determining the Number of Lightning Strikes......Page 759
CONTEXT 7 Magnetic Levitation Vehicles......Page 761
22 Magnetic Forces and Magnetic Fields......Page 763
22.2 The Magnetic Field......Page 764
22.3 Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field......Page 768
22.4 Applications Involving Charged Particles Moving in a Magnetic Field......Page 771
22.5 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor......Page 774
22.6 Torque on a Current Loop in a Uniform Magnetic Field......Page 777
22.7 The Biot–Savart Law......Page 779
22.8 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors......Page 782
22.9 Ampere's Law......Page 783
22.10 The Magnetic Field of a Solenoid......Page 786
22.11 Magnetism in Matter......Page 788
22.12 Context Connection: The Attractive Model for Magnetic Levitation......Page 789
23.1 Faraday's Law of Induction......Page 801
23.2 Motional emf......Page 806
23.3 Lenz's Law......Page 811
23.4 Induced emfs and Electric Fields......Page 814
23.5 Self-Inductance......Page 816
23.6 RL Circuits......Page 818
23.7 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field......Page 821
23.8 Context Connection: The Repulsive Model for Magnetic Levitation......Page 823
CONTEXT 7 Conclusion Lifting, Propelling, and Braking the Vehicle......Page 837
CONTEXT 8 Lasers......Page 840
24 Electromagnetic Waves......Page 842
24.1 Displacement Current and the Generalized Ampere's Law......Page 843
24.2 Maxwell's Equations......Page 844
24.3 Electromagnetic Waves......Page 846
24.4 Hertz's Discoveries......Page 850
24.5 Energy Carried by Electromagnetic Waves......Page 854
24.6 Momentum and Radiation Pressure......Page 856
24.7 The Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves......Page 858
24.8 Polarization......Page 860
24.9 Context Connection: The Special Properties of Laser Light......Page 862
25 Reflection and Refraction of Light......Page 875
25.1 The Nature of Light......Page 876
25.2 The Ray Model in Geometric Optics......Page 877
25.3 The Wave Under Reflection......Page 878
25.4 The Wave Under Refraction......Page 881
25.5 Dispersion and Prisms......Page 886
25.6 Huygens's Principle......Page 887
25.7 Total Internal Reflection......Page 889
25.8 Context Connection: Optical Fibers......Page 891
26 Image Formation by Mirrors and Lenses......Page 903
26.1 Images Formed by Flat Mirrors......Page 904
26.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors......Page 907
26.3 Images Formed by Refraction......Page 914
26.4 Thin Lenses......Page 917
26.5 Context Connection: Medical Fiberscopes......Page 924
27 Wave Optics......Page 934
27.2 Young's Double-Slit Experiment......Page 935
27.3 Light Waves in Interference......Page 937
27.4 Change of Phase Due to Reflection......Page 940
27.5 Interference in Thin Films......Page 941
27.6 Diffraction Patterns......Page 945
27.7 Resolution of Single-Slit and Circular Apertures......Page 948
27.8 The Diffraction Grating......Page 951
27.9 Diffraction of X-Rays by Crystals......Page 954
27.10 Context Connection: Holography......Page 956
CONTEXT 8 Conclusion Using Lasers to Record and Read Digital Information......Page 967
CONTEXT 9 The Cosmic Connection......Page 971
28 Quantum Physics......Page 973
28.1 Blackbody Radiation and Planck's Theory......Page 974
28.2 The Photoelectric Effect......Page 978
28.3 The Compton Effect......Page 983
28.4 Photons and Electromagnetic Waves......Page 985
28.5 The Wave Properties of Particles......Page 986
28.6 The Quantum Particle......Page 990
28.7 The Double-Slit Experiment Revisited......Page 993
28.8 The Uncertainty Principle......Page 995
28.9 An Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics......Page 997
28.10 A Particle in a Box......Page 999
28.11 The Quantum Particle Under Boundary Conditions......Page 1002
28.12 The Schrodinger Equation......Page 1003
28.13 Tunneling Through a Potential Energy Barrier......Page 1006
28.14 Context Connection: The Cosmic Temperature......Page 1009
29 Atomic Physics......Page 1019
29.1 Early Structural Models of the Atom......Page 1020
29.2 The Hydrogen Atom Revisited......Page 1021
29.3 The Wave Functions for Hydrogen......Page 1023
29.4 Physical Interpretation of the Quantum Numbers......Page 1027
29.5 The Exclusion Principle and the Periodic Table......Page 1033
29.6 More on Atomic Spectra: Visible and X-Ray......Page 1039
29.7 Context Connection: Atoms in Space......Page 1043
30 Nuclear Physics......Page 1052
30.1 Some Properties of Nuclei......Page 1053
30.2 Binding Energy......Page 1059
30.3 Radioactivity......Page 1061
30.4 The Radioactive Decay Processes......Page 1065
30.5 Nuclear Reactions......Page 1071
30.6 Context Connection: The Engine of the Stars......Page 1072
31 Particle Physics......Page 1084
31.1 The Fundamental Forces in Nature......Page 1085
31.2 Positrons and Other Antiparticles......Page 1086
31.3 Mesons and the Beginning of Particle Physics......Page 1089
31.4 Classification of Particles......Page 1091
31.5 Conservation Laws......Page 1093
31.6 Strange Particles and Strangeness......Page 1096
31.7 Measuring Particle Lifetimes......Page 1097
31.8 Finding Patterns in the Particles......Page 1099
31.9 Quarks......Page 1101
31.10 Colored Quarks......Page 1104
31.11 The Standard Model......Page 1106
31.12 Context Connection: Investigating the Smallest System to Understand the Largest......Page 1108
CONTEXT 9  Conclusion Problems and Perspectives......Page 1122
A.1 Conversion Factors......Page 1125
A.2 Symbols, Dimensions, and Units of Physical Quantities......Page 1126
A.3 Table of Atomic Masses......Page 1128
B.1 Scientific Notation......Page 1137
B.2 Algebra......Page 1138
B.3 Geometry......Page 1143
B.4 Trigonometry......Page 1144
B.6 Differential Calculus......Page 1146
B.7 Integral Calculus......Page 1148
B.8 Propagation of Uncertainty......Page 1151
Appendix C: Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 1154
D.2 Some Derived SI Units......Page 1156
Appendix E: Nobel Prizes......Page 1157
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems......Page 1162
Index......Page 1183