Principles of Neural Science

Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents in Brief
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Contributors
Part I Overall Perspective
	1 The Brain and Behavior
		Two Opposing Views Have Been Advanced on the Relationship Between Brain and Behavior
		The Brain Has Distinct Functional Regions
		The First Strong Evidence for Localization of Cognitive Abilities Came From Studies of Language Disorders
		Mental Processes Are the Product of Interactions Between Elementary Processing Units in the Brain
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	2 Genes and Behavior
		An Understanding of Molecular Genetics and Heritability Is Essential to the Study of Human Behavior
		The Understanding of the Structure and Function of the Genome Is Evolving
			Genes Are Arranged on Chromosomes
		The Relationship Between Genotype and Phenotype Is Often Complex
		Genes Are Conserved Through Evolution
		Genetic Regulation of Behavior Can Be Studied in Animal Models
			A Transcriptional Oscillator Regulates Circadian Rhythm in Flies, Mice, and Humans
			Natural Variation in a Protein Kinase Regulates Activity in Flies and Honeybees
			Neuropeptide Receptors Regulate the Social Behaviors of Several Species
		Studies of Human Genetic Syndromes Have Provided Initial Insights Into the Underpinnings of Social Behavior
			Brain Disorders in Humans Result From Interactions Between Genes and the Environment
			Rare Neurodevelopmental Syndromes Provide Insights Into the Biology of Social Behavior, Perception, and Cognition
		Psychiatric Disorders Involve Multigenic Traits
			Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorder Genetics Highlight the Role of Rare and De Novo Mutations in Neurodevelopmental Disorders
			Identification of Genes for Schizophrenia Highlights the Interplay of Rare and Common Risk Variants
		Perspectives on the Genetic Bases of Neuropsychiatric Disorders
		Highlights
		Glossary
		Selected Reading
		References
	3 Nerve Cells, Neural Circuitry, and Behavior
		The Nervous System Has Two Classes of Cells
			Nerve Cells Are the Signaling Units of the Nervous System
			Glial Cells Support Nerve Cells
		Each Nerve Cell Is Part of a Circuit That Mediates Specific Behaviors
		Signaling Is Organized in the Same Way in All Nerve Cells
			The Input Component Produces Graded Local Signals
			The Trigger Zone Makes the Decision to Generate an Action Potential
			The Conductive Component Propagates an All-or-None Action Potential
			The Output Component Releases Neurotransmitter
			The Transformation of the Neural Signal From Sensory to Motor Is Illustrated by the Stretch-Reflex Pathway
		Nerve Cells Differ Most at the Molecular Level
		The Reflex Circuit Is a Starting Point for Understanding the Neural Architecture of Behavior
		Neural Circuits Can Be Modified by Experience
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	4 The Neuroanatomical Bases by Which Neural Circuits Mediate Behavior
		Local Circuits Carry Out Specific Neural Computations That Are Coordinated to Mediate Complex Behaviors
		Sensory Information Circuits Are Illustrated in the Somatosensory System
			Somatosensory Information From the Trunk and Limbs Is Conveyed to the Spinal Cord
			The Primary Sensory Neurons of the Trunk and Limbs Are Clustered in the Dorsal Root Ganglia
			The Terminals of Central Axons of Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons in the Spinal Cord Produce a Map of the Body Surface
			Each Somatic Submodality Is Processed in a Distinct Subsystem From the Periphery to the Brain
		The Thalamus Is an Essential Link Between Sensory Receptors and the Cerebral Cortex
		Sensory Information Processing Culminates in the Cerebral Cortex
		Voluntary Movement Is Mediated by Direct Connections Between the Cortex and Spinal Cord
		Modulatory Systems in the Brain Influence Motivation, Emotion, and Memory
		The Peripheral Nervous System Is Anatomically Distinct From the Central Nervous System
		Memory Is a Complex Behavior Mediated by Structures Distinct From Those That Carry Out Sensation or Movement
			The Hippocampal System Is Interconnected With the Highest-Level Polysensory Cortical Regions
			The Hippocampal Formation Comprises Several Different but Highly Integrated Circuits
			The Hippocampal Formation Is Made Up Mainly of Unidirectional Connections
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	5 The Computational Bases of Neural Circuits That Mediate Behavior
		Neural Firing Patterns Provide a Code for Information
			Sensory Information Is Encoded by Neural Activity
			Information Can Be Decoded From Neural Activity
			Hippocampal Spatial Cognitive Maps Can Be Decoded to Infer Location
		Neural Circuit Motifs Provide a Basic Logic for Information Processing
			Visual Processing and Object Recognition Depend on a Hierarchy of Feed-Forward Representations
			Diverse Neuronal Representations in the Cerebellum Provide a Basis for Learning
			Recurrent Circuitry Underlies Sustained Activity and Integration
		Learning and Memory Depend on Synaptic Plasticity
			Dominant Patterns of Synaptic Input Can be Identified by Hebbian Plasticity
			Synaptic Plasticity in the Cerebellum Plays a Key Role in Motor Learning
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	6 Imaging and Behavior
		Functional MRI Experiments Measure Neurovascular Activity
			fMRI Depends on the Physics of Magnetic Resonance
			fMRI Depends on the Biology of Neurovascular Coupling
		Functional MRI Data Can Be Analyzed in Several Ways
			fMRI Data First Need to Be Prepared for Analysis by Following Preprocessing Steps
			fMRI Can Be Used to Localize Cognitive Functions to Specific Brain Regions
			fMRI Can Be Used to Decode What Information Is Represented in the Brain
			fMRI Can Be Used to Measure Correlated Activity Across Brain Networks
		Functional MRI Studies Have Led to Fundamental Insights
			fMRI Studies in Humans Have Inspired Neurophysiological Studies in Animals
			fMRI Studies Have Challenged Theories From Cognitive Psychology and Systems Neuroscience
			fMRI Studies Have Tested Predictions From Animal Studies and Computational Models
		Functional MRI Studies Require Careful Interpretation
		Future Progress Depends on Technological and Conceptual Advances
		Highlights
		Suggested Reading
		References
Part II Cell and Molecular Biology of Cells of the Nervous System
	7 The Cells of the Nervous System
		Neurons and Glia Share Many Structural and Molecular Characteristics
		The Cytoskeleton Determines Cell Shape
		Protein Particles and Organelles Are Actively Transported Along the Axon and Dendrites
			Fast Axonal Transport Carries Membranous Organelles
			Slow Axonal Transport Carries Cytosolic Proteins and Elements of the Cytoskeleton
		Proteins Are Made in Neurons as in Other Secretory Cells
			Secretory and Membrane Proteins Are Synthesized and Modified in the Endoplasmic Reticulum
			Secretory Proteins Are Modified in the Golgi Complex
		Surface Membrane and Extracellular Substances Are Recycled in the Cell
		Glial Cells Play Diverse Roles in Neural Function
			Glia Form the Insulating Sheaths for Axons
			Astrocytes Support Synaptic Signaling
			Microglia Have Diverse Functions in Health and Disease
		Choroid Plexus and Ependymal Cells Produce Cerebrospinal Fluid
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	8 Ion Channels
		Ion Channels Are Proteins That Span the Cell Membrane
		Ion Channels in All Cells Share Several Functional Characteristics
			Currents Through Single Ion Channels Can Be Recorded
			The Flux of Ions Through a Channel Differs From Diffusion in Free Solution
			The Opening and Closing of a Channel Involve Conformational Changes
		The Structure of Ion Channels Is Inferred From Biophysical, Biochemical, and Molecular Biological Studies
			Ion Channels Can Be Grouped Into Gene Families
			X-Ray Crystallographic Analysis of Potassium Channel Structure Provides Insight Into Mechanisms of Channel Permeability and Selectivity
			X-Ray Crystallographic Analysis of Voltage-Gated Potassium Channel Structures Provides Insight into Mechanisms of Channel Gating
			The Structural Basis of the Selective Permeability of Chloride Channels Reveals a Close Relation Between Channels and Transporters
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	9 Membrane Potential and the Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron
		The Resting Membrane Potential Results From the Separation of Charge Across the Cell Membrane
		The Resting Membrane Potential Is Determined by Nongated and Gated Ion Channels
			Open Channels in Glial Cells Are Permeable to Potassium Only
			Open Channels in Resting Nerve Cells Are Permeable to Three Ion Species
			The Electrochemical Gradients of Sodium, Potassium, and Calcium Are Established by Active Transport of the Ions
			Chloride Ions Are Also Actively Transported
		The Balance of Ion Fluxes in the Resting Membrane Is Abolished During the Action Potential
		The Contributions of Different Ions to the Resting Membrane Potential Can Be Quantified by the Goldman Equation
		The Functional Properties of the Neuron Can Be Represented as an Electrical Equivalent Circuit
		The Passive Electrical Properties of the Neuron Affect Electrical Signaling
			Membrane Capacitance Slows the Time Course of Electrical Signals
			Membrane and Cytoplasmic Resistance Affect the Efficiency of Signal Conduction
			Large Axons Are More Easily Excited Than Small Axons
			Passive Membrane Properties and Axon Diameter Affect the Velocity of Action Potential Propagation
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	10 Propagated Signaling: The Action Potential
		The Action Potential Is Generated by the Flow of Ions Through Voltage-Gated Channels
			Sodium and Potassium Currents Through Voltage-Gated Channels Are Recorded With the Voltage Clamp
			Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Conductances Are Calculated From Their Currents
			The Action Potential Can Be Reconstructed From the Properties of Sodium and Potassium Channels
		The Mechanisms of Voltage Gating Have Been Inferred From Electrophysiological Measurements
		Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels Select for Sodium on the Basis of Size, Charge, and Energy of Hydration of the Ion
		Individual Neurons Have a Rich Variety of Voltage-Gated Channels That Expand Their Signaling Capabilities
			The Diversity of Voltage-Gated Channel Types Is Generated by Several Genetic Mechanisms
			Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels
			Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels
			Voltage-Gated Potassium Channels
			Voltage-Gated Hyperpolarization-Activated Cyclic Nucleotide-Gated Channels
		Gating of Ion Channels Can Be Controlled by Cytoplasmic Calcium
		Excitability Properties Vary Between Types of Neurons
		Excitability Properties Vary Between Regions of the Neuron
		Neuronal Excitability Is Plastic
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part III Synaptic Transmission
	11 Overview of Synaptic Transmission
		Synapses Are Predominantly Electrical or Chemical
		Electrical Synapses Provide Rapid Signal Transmission
			Cells at an Electrical Synapse Are Connected by Gap-Junction Channels
			Electrical Transmission Allows Rapid and Synchronous Firing of Interconnected Cells
			Gap Junctions Have a Role in Glial Function and Disease
		Chemical Synapses Can Amplify Signals
			The Action of a Neurotransmitter Depends on the Properties of the Postsynaptic Receptor
			Activation of Postsynaptic Receptors Gates Ion Channels Either Directly or Indirectly
		Electrical and Chemical Synapses Can Coexist and Interact
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	12 Directly Gated Transmission: The Nerve-Muscle Synapse
		The Neuromuscular Junction Has Specialized Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Structures
			The Postsynaptic Potential Results From a Local Change in Membrane Permeability
			The Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine Is Released in Discrete Packets
		Individual Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Conduct All-or-None Currents
			The Ion Channel at the End-Plate Is Permeable to Both Sodium and Potassium Ions
			Four Factors Determine the End-Plate Current
		The Acetylcholine Receptor-Channels Have Distinct Properties That Distinguish Them From the Voltage-Gated Channels That Generate the Muscle Action Potential
			Transmitter Binding Produces a Series of State Changes in the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel
			The Low-Resolution Structure of the Acetylcholine Receptor Is Revealed by Molecular and Biophysical Studies
			The High-Resolution Structure of the Acetylcholine Receptor-Channel Is Revealed by X-Ray Crystal Studies
		Highlights
		Postscript: The End-Plate Current Can Be Calculated From an Equivalent Circuit
		Selected Reading
		References
	13 Synaptic Integration in the Central Nervous System
		Central Neurons Receive Excitatory and Inhibitory Inputs
		Excitatory and Inhibitory Synapses Have Distinctive Ultrastructures and Target Different Neuronal Regions
		Excitatory Synaptic Transmission Is Mediated by Ionotropic Glutamate Receptor-Channels Permeable to Cations
			The Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors Are Encoded by a Large Gene Family
			Glutamate Receptors Are Constructed From a Set of Structural Modules
			NMDA and AMPA Receptors Are Organized by a Network of Proteins at the Postsynaptic Density
			NMDA Receptors Have Unique Biophysical and Pharmacological Properties
			The Properties of the NMDA Receptor Underlie Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity
			NMDA Receptors Contribute to Neuropsychiatric Disease
		Fast Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Mediated by Ionotropic GABA and Glycine Receptor-Channels Permeable to Chloride
		Ionotropic Glutamate, GABA, and Glycine Receptors Are Transmembrane Proteins Encoded by Two Distinct Gene Families
			Chloride Currents Through GABA A and Glycine Receptor-Channels Normally Inhibit the Postsynaptic Cell
		Some Synaptic Actions in the Central Nervous System Depend on Other Types of Ionotropic Receptors
		Excitatory and Inhibitory Synaptic Actions Are Integrated by Neurons Into a Single Output
			Synaptic Inputs Are Integrated at the Axon Initial Segment
			Subclasses of GABAergic Neurons Target Distinct Regions of Their Postsynaptic Target Neurons to Produce Inhibitory Actions With Different Functions
			Dendrites Are Electrically Excitable Structures That Can Amplify Synaptic Input
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	14 Modulation of Synaptic Transmission and Neuronal Excitability: Second Messengers
		The Cyclic AMP Pathway Is the Best Understood Second-Messenger Signaling Cascade Initiated by G Protein–Coupled Receptors
		The Second-Messenger Pathways Initiated by G Protein–Coupled Receptors Share a Common Molecular Logic
			A Family of G Proteins Activates Distinct Second-Messenger Pathways
			Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase C Produces Two Important Second Messengers, IP 3 and Diacylglycerol
		Receptor Tyrosine Kinases Compose the Second Major Family of Metabotropic Receptors
		Several Classes of Metabolites Can Serve as Transcellular Messengers
			Hydrolysis of Phospholipids by Phospholipase A 2 Liberates Arachidonic Acid to Produce Other Second Messengers
			Endocannabinoids Are Transcellular Messengers That Inhibit Presynaptic Transmitter Release
			The Gaseous Second Messenger Nitric Oxide Is a Transcellular Signal That Stimulates Cyclic GMP Synthesis
		The Physiological Actions of Metabotropic Receptors Differ From Those of Ionotropic Receptors
			Second-Messenger Cascades Can Increase or Decrease the Opening of Many Types of Ion Channels
			G Proteins Can Modulate Ion Channels Directly
			Cyclic AMP–Dependent Protein Phosphorylation Can Close Potassium Channels
		Second Messengers Can Endow Synaptic Transmission with Long-Lasting Consequences
		Modulators Can Influence Circuit Function by Altering Intrinsic Excitability or Synaptic Strength
			Multiple Neuromodulators Can Converge Onto the Same Neuron and Ion Channels
			Why So Many Modulators?
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	15 T ransmitter Release
		Transmitter Release Is Regulated by Depolarization of the Presynaptic Terminal
		Release Is Triggered by Calcium Influx
			The Relation Between Presynaptic Calcium Concentration and Release
			Several Classes of Calcium Channels Mediate Transmitter Release
		Transmitter Is Released in Quantal Units
		Transmitter Is Stored and Released by Synaptic Vesicles
			Synaptic Vesicles Discharge Transmitter by Exocytosis and Are Recycled by Endocytosis
			Capacitance Measurements Provide Insight Into the Kinetics of Exocytosis and Endocytosis
			Exocytosis Involves the Formation of a Temporary Fusion Pore
			The Synaptic Vesicle Cycle Involves Several Steps
		Exocytosis of Synaptic Vesicles Relies on a Highly Conserved Protein Machinery
			The Synapsins Are Important for Vesicle Restraint and Mobilization
			SNARE Proteins Catalyze Fusion of Vesicles With the Plasma Membrane
			Calcium Binding to Synaptotagmin Triggers Transmitter Release
			The Fusion Machinery Is Embedded in a Conserved Protein Scaffold at the Active Zone
		Modulation of Transmitter Release Underlies Synaptic Plasticity
			Activity-Dependent Changes in Intracellular Free Calcium Can Produce Long-Lasting Changes in Release
			Axo-axonic Synapses on Presynaptic Terminals Regulate Transmitter Release
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	16 Neurotransmitters
		A Chemical Messenger Must Meet Four Criteria to Be Considered a Neurotransmitter
		Only a Few Small-Molecule Substances Act as Transmitters
			Acetylcholine
			Biogenic Amine Transmitters
			Amino Acid Transmitters
			ATP and Adenosine
		Small-Molecule Transmitters Are Actively Taken Up Into Vesicles
		Many Neuroactive Peptides Serve as Transmitters
		Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Differ in Several Ways
		Peptides and Small-Molecule Transmitters Can Be Co-released
		Removal of Transmitter From the Synaptic Cleft Terminates Synaptic Transmission
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part IV Perception
	17 Sensory Coding
		Psychophysics Relates Sensations to the Physical Properties of Stimuli
			Psychophysics Quantifies the Perception of Stimulus Properties
		Stimuli Are Represented in the Nervous System by the Firing Patterns of Neurons
			Sensory Receptors Respond to Specific Classes of Stimulus Energy
			Multiple Subclasses of Sensory Receptors Are Found in Each Sense Organ
			Receptor Population Codes Transmit Sensory Information to the Brain
			Sequences of Action Potentials Signal the Temporal Dynamics of Stimuli
			The Receptive Fields of Sensory Neurons Provide Spatial Information About Stimulus Location
		Central Nervous System Circuits Refine Sensory Information
			The Receptor Surface Is Represented Topographically in the Early Stages of Each Sensory System
			Sensory Information Is Processed in Parallel Pathways in the Cerebral Cortex
			Feedback Pathways From the Brain Regulate Sensory Coding Mechanisms
			Top-Down Learning Mechanisms Influence Sensory Processing
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	18 Receptors of the Somatosensory System
		Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons Are the Primary Sensory Receptor Cells of the Somatosensory System
		Peripheral Somatosensory Nerve Fibers Conduct Action Potentials at Different Rates
		A Variety of Specialized Receptors Are Employed by the Somatosensory System
			Mechanoreceptors Mediate Touch and Proprioception
			Specialized End Organs Contribute to Mechanosensation
			Proprioceptors Measure Muscle Activity and Joint Positions
			Thermal Receptors Detect Changes in Skin Temperature
			Nociceptors Mediate Pain
			Itch Is a Distinctive Cutaneous Sensation
			Visceral Sensations Represent the Status of Internal Organs
		Action Potential Codes Transmit Somatosensory Information to the Brain
			Sensory Ganglia Provide a Snapshot of Population Responses to Somatic Stimuli
			Somatosensory Information Enters the Central Nervous System Via Spinal or Cranial Nerves
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	19 Touch
		Active and Passive Touch Have Distinct Goals
		The Hand Has Four Types of Mechanoreceptors
			A Cell's Receptive Field Defines Its Zone of Tactile Sensitivity
			Two-Point Discrimination Tests Measure Tactile Acuity
			Slowly Adapting Fibers Detect Object Pressure and Form
			Rapidly Adapting Fibers Detect Motion and Vibration
			Both Slowly and Rapidly Adapting Fibers Are Important for Grip Control
		Tactile Information Is Processed in the Central Touch System
			Spinal, Brain Stem, and Thalamic Circuits Segregate Touch and Proprioception
			The Somatosensory Cortex Is Organized Into Functionally Specialized Columns
			Cortical Columns Are Organized Somatotopically
			The Receptive Fields of Cortical Neurons Integrate Information From Neighboring Receptors
		Touch Information Becomes Increasingly Abstract in Successive Central Synapses
			Cognitive Touch Is Mediated by Neurons in the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex
			Active Touch Engages Sensorimotor Circuits in the Posterior Parietal Cortex
		Lesions in Somatosensory Areas of the Brain Produce Specific Tactile Deficits
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	20 Pain
		Noxious Insults Activate Thermal, Mechanical, and Polymodal Nociceptors
		Signals From Nociceptors Are Conveyed to Neurons in the Dorsal Horn of the Spinal Cord
		Hyperalgesia Has Both Peripheral and Central Origins
		Four Major Ascending Pathways Convey Nociceptive Information From the Spinal Cord to the Brain
		Several Thalamic Nuclei Relay Nociceptive Information to the Cerebral Cortex
		The Perception of Pain Arises From and Can Be Controlled by Cortical Mechanisms
			Anterior Cingulate and Insular Cortex Are Associated With the Perception of Pain
			Pain Perception Is Regulated by a Balance of Activity in Nociceptive and Nonnociceptive Afferent Fibers
			Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Produces Analgesia
		Opioid Peptides Contribute to Endogenous Pain Control
			Endogenous Opioid Peptides and Their Receptors Are Distributed in Pain-Modulatory Systems
			Morphine Controls Pain by Activating Opioid Receptors
			Tolerance to and Dependence on Opioids Are Distinct Phenomena
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	21 The Constructive Nature of Visual Processing
		Visual Perception Is a Constructive Process
		Visual Processing Is Mediated by the Geniculostriate Pathway
		Form, Color, Motion, and Depth Are Processed in Discrete Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
		The Receptive Fields of Neurons at Successive Relays in the Visual Pathway Provide Clues to How the Brain Analyzes Visual Form
		The Visual Cortex Is Organized Into Columns of Specialized Neurons
		Intrinsic Cortical Circuits Transform Neural Information
		Visual Information Is Represented by a Variety of Neural Codes
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	22 Low-Level Visual Processing: The Retina
		The Photoreceptor Layer Samples the Visual Image
			Ocular Optics Limit the Quality of the Retinal Image
			There Are Two Types of Photoreceptors: Rods and Cones
		Phototransduction Links the Absorption of a Photon to a Change in Membrane Conductance
			Light Activates Pigment Molecules in the Photoreceptors
			Excited Rhodopsin Activates a Phosphodiesterase Through the G Protein Transducin
			Multiple Mechanisms Shut Off the Cascade
			Defects in Phototransduction Cause Disease
		Ganglion Cells Transmit Neural Images to the Brain
			The Two Major Types of Ganglion Cells Are ON Cells and OFF Cells
			Many Ganglion Cells Respond Strongly to Edges in the Image
			The Output of Ganglion Cells Emphasizes Temporal Changes in Stimuli
			Retinal Output Emphasizes Moving Objects
			Several Ganglion Cell Types Project to the Brain Through Parallel Pathways
		A Network of Interneurons Shapes the Retinal Output
			Parallel Pathways Originate in Bipolar Cells
			Spatial Filtering Is Accomplished by Lateral Inhibition
			Temporal Filtering Occurs in Synapses and Feedback Circuits
			Color Vision Begins in Cone-Selective Circuits
			Congenital Color Blindness Takes Several Forms
			Rod and Cone Circuits Merge in the Inner Retina
		The Retina's Sensitivity Adapts to Changes in Illumination
			Light Adaptation Is Apparent in Retinal Processing and Visual Perception
			Multiple Gain Controls Occur Within the Retina
			Light Adaptation Alters Spatial Processing
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	23 Intermediate-Level Visual Processing and Visual Primitives
		Internal Models of Object Geometry Help the Brain Analyze Shapes
		Depth Perception Helps Segregate Objects From Background
		Local Movement Cues Define Object Trajectory and Shape
		Context Determines the Perception of Visual Stimuli
			Brightness and Color Perception Depend on Context
			Receptive-Field Properties Depend on Context
		Cortical Connections, Functional Architecture, and Perception Are Intimately Related
			Perceptual Learning Requires Plasticity in Cortical Connections
			Visual Search Relies on the Cortical Representation of Visual Attributes and Shapes
			Cognitive Processes Influence Visual Perception
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	24 High-Level Visual Processing: From Vision to Cognition
		High-Level Visual Processing Is Concerned With Object Recognition
		The Inferior Temporal Cortex Is the Primary Center for Object Recognition
			Clinical Evidence Identifies the Inferior Temporal Cortex as Essential for Object Recognition
			Neurons in the Inferior Temporal Cortex Encode Complex Visual Stimuli and Are Organized in Functionally Specialized Columns
			The Primate Brain Contains Dedicated Systems for Face Processing
			The Inferior Temporal Cortex Is Part of a Network of Cortical Areas Involved in Object Recognition
		Object Recognition Relies on Perceptual Constancy
		Categorical Perception of Objects Simplifies Behavior
		Visual Memory Is a Component of High-Level Visual Processing
			Implicit Visual Learning Leads to Changes in the Selectivity of Neuronal Responses
			The Visual System Interacts With Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Systems
		Associative Recall of Visual Memories Depends on Top-Down Activation of the Cortical Neurons That Process Visual Stimuli
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	25 Visual Processing for Attention and Action
		The Brain Compensates for Eye Movements to Create a Stable Representation of the Visual World
			Motor Commands for Saccades Are Copied to the Visual System
			Oculomotor Proprioception Can Contribute to Spatially Accurate Perception and Behavior
		Visual Scrutiny Is Driven by Attention and Arousal Circuits
		The Parietal Cortex Provides Visual Information to the Motor System
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	26 Auditory Processing by the Cochlea
		The Ear Has Three Functional Parts
		Hearing Commences With the Capture of Sound Energy by the Ear
		The Hydrodynamic and Mechanical Apparatus of the Cochlea Delivers Mechanical Stimuli to the Receptor Cells
			The Basilar Membrane Is a Mechanical Analyzer of Sound Frequency
			The Organ of Corti Is the Site of Mechanoelectrical Transduction in the Cochlea
		Hair Cells Transform Mechanical Energy Into Neural Signals
			Deflection of the Hair Bundle Initiates Mechanoelectrical Transduction
			Mechanical Force Directly Opens Transduction Channels
			Direct Mechanoelectrical Transduction Is Rapid
			Deafness Genes Provide Components of the Mechanotransduction Machinery
		Dynamic Feedback Mechanisms Determine the Sensitivity of the Hair Cells
			Hair Cells Are Tuned to Specific Stimulus Frequencies
			Hair Cells Adapt to Sustained Stimulation
			Sound Energy Is Mechanically Amplified in the Cochlea
			Cochlear Amplification Distorts Acoustic Inputs
			The Hopf Bifurcation Provides a General Principle for Sound Detection
		Hair Cells Use Specialized Ribbon Synapses
		Auditory Information Flows Initially Through the Cochlear Nerve
			Bipolar Neurons in the Spiral Ganglion Innervate Cochlear Hair Cells
			Cochlear Nerve Fibers Encode Stimulus Frequency and Level
		Sensorineural Hearing Loss Is Common but Is Amenable to Treatment
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	27 The Vestibular System
		The Vestibular Labyrinth in the Inner Ear Contains Five Receptor Organs
			Hair Cells Transduce Acceleration Stimuli Into Receptor Potentials
			The Semicircular Canals Sense Head Rotation
			The Otolith Organs Sense Linear Accelerations
		Central Vestibular Nuclei Integrate Vestibular, Visual, Proprioceptive, and Motor Signals
			The Vestibular Commissural System Communicates Bilateral Information
			Combined Semicircular Canal and Otolith Signals Improve Inertial Sensing and Decrease Ambiguity of Translation Versus Tilt
			Vestibular Signals Are a Critical Component of Head Movement Control
		Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Stabilize the Eyes When the Head Moves
			The Rotational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Head Rotation
			The Translational Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex Compensates for Linear Motion and Head Tilts
			Vestibulo-Ocular Reflexes Are Supplemented by Optokinetic Responses
			The Cerebellum Adjusts the Vestibulo-Ocular Reflex
			The Thalamus and Cortex Use Vestibular Signals for Spatial Memory and Cognitive and Perceptual Functions
			Vestibular Information Is Present in the Thalamus
			Vestibular Information Is Widespread in the Cortex
			Vestibular Signals Are Essential for Spatial Orientation and Spatial Navigation
		Clinical Syndromes Elucidate Normal Vestibular Function
			Caloric Irrigation as a Vestibular Diagnostic Tool
			Bilateral Vestibular Hypofunction Interferes With Normal Vision
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	28 Auditory Processing by the Central Nervous System
		Sounds Convey Multiple Types of Information to Hearing Animals
		The Neural Representation of Sound in Central Pathways Begins in the Cochlear Nuclei
			The Cochlear Nerve Delivers Acoustic Information in Parallel Pathways to the Tonotopically Organized Cochlear Nuclei
			The Ventral Cochlear Nucleus Extracts Temporal and Spectral Information About Sounds
			The Dorsal Cochlear Nucleus Integrates Acoustic With Somatosensory Information in Making Use of Spectral Cues for Localizing Sounds
		The Superior Olivary Complex in Mammals Contains Separate Circuits for Detecting Interaural Time and Intensity Differences
			The Medial Superior Olive Generates a Map of Interaural Time Differences
			The Lateral Superior Olive Detects Interaural Intensity Differences
			The Superior Olivary Complex Provides Feedback to the Cochlea
			Ventral and Dorsal Nuclei of the Lateral Lemniscus Shape Responses in the Inferior Colliculus With Inhibition
		Afferent Auditory Pathways Converge in the Inferior Colliculus
			Sound Location Information From the Inferior Colliculus Creates a Spatial Map of Sound in the Superior Colliculus
		The Inferior Colliculus Transmits Auditory Information to the Cerebral Cortex
			Stimulus Selectivity Progressively Increases Along the Ascending Pathway
			The Auditory Cortex Maps Numerous Aspects of Sound
			A Second Sound-Localization Pathway From the Inferior Colliculus Involves the Cerebral Cortex in Gaze Control
			Auditory Circuits in the Cerebral Cortex Are Segregated Into Separate Processing Streams
			The Cerebral Cortex Modulates Sensory Processing in Subcortical Auditory Areas
		The Cerebral Cortex Forms Complex Sound Representations
			The Auditory Cortex Uses Temporal and Rate Codes to Represent Time-Varying Sounds
			Primates Have Specialized Cortical Neurons That Encode Pitch and Harmonics
			Insectivorous Bats Have Cortical Areas Specialized for Behaviorally Relevant Features of Sound
			The Auditory Cortex Is Involved in Processing Vocal Feedback During Speaking
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	29 Smell and Taste: The Chemical Senses
		A Large Family of Olfactory Receptors Initiate the Sense of Smell
			Mammals Share a Large Family of Odorant Receptors
			Different Combinations of Receptors Encode Different Odorants
		Olfactory Information Is Transformed Along the Pathway to the Brain
			Odorants Are Encoded in the Nose by Dispersed Neurons
			Sensory Inputs in the Olfactory Bulb Are Arranged by Receptor Type
			The Olfactory Bulb Transmits Information to the Olfactory Cortex
			Output From the Olfactory Cortex Reaches Higher Cortical and Limbic Areas
			Olfactory Acuity Varies in Humans
		Odors Elicit Characteristic Innate Behaviors
			Pheromones Are Detected in Two Olfactory Structures
			Invertebrate Olfactory Systems Can Be Used to Study Odor Coding and Behavior
			Olfactory Cues Elicit Stereotyped Behaviors and Physiological Responses in the Nematode
			Strategies for Olfaction Have Evolved Rapidly
		The Gustatory System Controls the Sense of Taste
			Taste Has Five Submodalities That Reflect Essential Dietary Requirements
			Tastant Detection Occurs in Taste Buds
			Each Taste Modality Is Detected by Distinct Sensory Receptors and Cells
			Gustatory Information Is Relayed From the Periphery to the Gustatory Cortex
			Perception of Flavor Depends on Gustatory, Olfactory, and Somatosensory Inputs
			Insects Have Modality-Specific Taste Cells That Drive Innate Behaviors
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part V Movement
	30 Principles of Sensorimotor Control
		The Control of Movement Poses Challenges for the Nervous System
		Actions Can Be Controlled Voluntarily, Rhythmically, or Reflexively
		Motor Commands Arise Through a Hierarchy of Sensorimotor Processes
		Motor Signals Are Subject to Feedforward and Feedback Control
			Feedforward Control Is Required for Rapid Movements
			Feedback Control Uses Sensory Signals to Correct Movements
			Estimation of the Body's Current State Relies on Sensory and Motor Signals
			Prediction Can Compensate for Sensorimotor Delays
			Sensory Processing Can Differ for Action and Perception
		Motor Plans Translate Tasks Into Purposeful Movement
			Stereotypical Patterns Are Employed in Many Movements
			Motor Planning Can Be Optimal at Reducing Costs
			Optimal Feedback Control Corrects for Errors in a Task-Dependent Manner
		Multiple Processes Contribute to Motor Learning
			Error-Based Learning Involves Adapting Internal Sensorimotor Models
			Skill Learning Relies on Multiple Processes for Success
			Sensorimotor Representations Constrain Learning
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	31 The Motor Unit and Muscle Action
		The Motor Unit Is the Elementary Unit of Motor Control
			A Motor Unit Consists of a Motor Neuron and Multiple Muscle Fibers
			The Properties of Motor Units Vary
			Physical Activity Can Alter Motor Unit Properties
			Muscle Force Is Controlled by the Recruitment and Discharge Rate of Motor Units
			The Input–Output Properties of Motor Neurons Are Modified by Input From the Brain Stem
		Muscle Force Depends on the Structure of Muscle
			The Sarcomere Is the Basic Organizational Unit of Contractile Proteins
			Noncontractile Elements Provide Essential Structural Support
			Contractile Force Depends on Muscle Fiber Activation, Length, and Velocity
			Muscle Torque Depends on Musculoskeletal Geometry
		Different Movements Require Different Activation Strategies
			Contraction Velocity Can Vary in Magnitude and Direction
			Movements Involve the Coordination of Many Muscles
			Muscle Work Depends on the Pattern of Activation
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	32 Sensory-Motor Integration in the Spinal Cord
		Reflex Pathways in the Spinal Cord Produce Coordinated Patterns of Muscle Contraction
			The Stretch Reflex Acts to Resist the Lengthening of a Muscle
		Neuronal Networks in the Spinal Cord Contribute to the Coordination of Reflex Responses
			The Stretch Reflex Involves a Monosynaptic Pathway
			Gamma Motor Neurons Adjust the Sensitivity of Muscle Spindles
			The Stretch Reflex Also Involves Polysynaptic Pathways
			Golgi Tendon Organs Provide Force-Sensitive Feedback to the Spinal Cord
			Cutaneous Reflexes Produce Complex Movements That Serve Protective and Postural Functions
			Convergence of Sensory Inputs on Interneurons Increases the Flexibility of Reflex Contributions to Movement
		Sensory Feedback and Descending Motor Commands Interact at Common Spinal Neurons to Produce Voluntary Movements
			Muscle Spindle Sensory Afferent Activity Reinforces Central Commands for Movements Through the Ia Monosynaptic Reflex Pathway
			Modulation of Ia inhibitory Interneurons and Renshaw Cells by Descending Inputs Coordinate Muscle Activity at Joints
			Transmission in Reflex Pathways May Be Facilitated or Inhibited by Descending Motor Commands
			Descending Inputs Modulate Sensory Input to the Spinal Cord by Changing the Synaptic Efficiency of Primary Sensory Fibers
		Part of the Descending Command for Voluntary Movements Is Conveyed Through Spinal Interneurons
			Propriospinal Neurons in the C3–C4 Segments Mediate Part of the Corticospinal Command for Movement of the Upper Limb
			Neurons in Spinal Reflex Pathways Are Activated Prior to Movement
		Proprioceptive Reflexes Play an Important Role in Regulating Both Voluntary and Automatic Movements
		Spinal Reflex Pathways Undergo Long-Term Changes
		Damage to the Central Nervous System Produces Characteristic Alterations in Reflex Responses
			Interruption of Descending Pathways to the Spinal Cord Frequently Produces Spasticity
			Lesion of the Spinal Cord in Humans Leads to a Period of Spinal Shock Followed by Hyperreflexia
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	33 Locomotion
		Locomotion Requires the Production of a Precise and Coordinated Pattern of Muscle Activation
		The Motor Pattern of Stepping Is Organized at the Spinal Level
			The Spinal Circuits Responsible for Locomotion Can Be Modified by Experience
			Spinal Locomotor Networks Are Organized Into Rhythm- and Pattern-Generation Circuits
		Somatosensory Inputs From Moving Limbs Modulate Locomotion
			Proprioception Regulates the Timing and Amplitude of Stepping
			Mechanoreceptors in the Skin Allow Stepping to Adjust to Unexpected Obstacles
		Supraspinal Structures Are Responsible for Initiation and Adaptive Control of Stepping
			Midbrain Nuclei Initiate and Maintain Locomotion and Control Speed
			Midbrain Nuclei That Initiate Locomotion Project to Brain Stem Neurons
			The Brain Stem Nuclei Regulate Posture During Locomotion
		Visually Guided Locomotion Involves the Motor Cortex
		Planning of Locomotion Involves the Posterior Parietal Cortex
		The Cerebellum Regulates the Timing and Intensity of Descending Signals
		The Basal Ganglia Modify Cortical and Brain Stem Circuits
		Computational Neuroscience Provides Insights Into Locomotor Circuits
		Neuronal Control of Human Locomotion Is Similar to That of Quadrupeds
		Highlights
		Suggested Reading
		References
	34 V oluntary Movement: Motor Cortices
		Voluntary Movement Is the Physical Manifestation of an Intention to Act
			Theoretical Frameworks Help Interpret Behavior and the Neural Basis of Voluntary Control
			Many Frontal and Parietal Cortical Regions Are Involved in Voluntary Control
			Descending Motor Commands Are Principally Transmitted by the Corticospinal Tract
			Imposing a Delay Period Before the Onset of Movement Isolates the Neural Activity Associated With Planning From That Associated With Executing the Action
		Parietal Cortex Provides Information About the World and the Body for State Estimation to Plan and Execute Motor Actions
			The Parietal Cortex Links Sensory Information to Motor Actions
			Body Position and Motion Are Represented in Several Areas of Posterior Parietal Cortex
			Spatial Goals Are Represented in Several Areas of Posterior Parietal Cortex
			Internally Generated Feedback May Influence Parietal Cortex Activity
		Premotor Cortex Supports Motor Selection and Planning
			Medial Premotor Cortex Is Involved in the Contextual Control of Voluntary Actions
			Dorsal Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Planning Sensory-Guided Movement of the Arm
			Dorsal Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Applying Rules (Associations) That Govern Behavior
			Ventral Premotor Cortex Is Involved in Planning Motor Actions of the Hand
			Premotor Cortex May Contribute to Perceptual Decisions That Guide Motor Actions
			Several Cortical Motor Areas Are Active When the Motor Actions of Others Are Being Observed
			Many Aspects of Voluntary Control Are Distributed Across Parietal and Premotor Cortex
		The Primary Motor Cortex Plays an Important Role in Motor Execution
			The Primary Motor Cortex Includes a Detailed Map of the Motor Periphery
			Some Neurons in the Primary Motor Cortex Project Directly to Spinal Motor Neurons
			Activity in the Primary Motor Cortex Reflects Many Spatial and Temporal Features of Motor Output
			Primary Motor Cortical Activity Also Reflects Higher-Order Features of Movement
			Sensory Feedback Is Transmitted Rapidly to the Primary Motor Cortex and Other Cortical Regions
			The Primary Motor Cortex Is Dynamic and Adaptable
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	35 The Control of Gaze
		The Eye Is Moved by the Six Extraocular Muscles
			Eye Movements Rotate the Eye in the Orbit
			The Six Extraocular Muscles Form Three Agonist–Antagonist Pairs
			Movements of the Two Eyes Are Coordinated
			The Extraocular Muscles Are Controlled by Three Cranial Nerves
		Six Neuronal Control Systems Keep the Eyes on Target
			An Active Fixation System Holds the Fovea on a Stationary Target
			The Saccadic System Points the Fovea Toward Objects of Interest
		The Motor Circuits for Saccades Lie in the Brain Stem
			Horizontal Saccades Are Generated in the Pontine Reticular Formation
			Vertical Saccades Are Generated in the Mesencephalic Reticular Formation
			Brain Stem Lesions Result in Characteristic Deficits in Eye Movements
		Saccades Are Controlled by the Cerebral Cortex Through the Superior Colliculus
			The Superior Colliculus Integrates Visual and Motor Information into Oculomotor Signals for the Brain Stem
			The Rostral Superior Colliculus Facilitates Visual Fixation
			The Basal Ganglia and Two Regions of Cerebral Cortex Control the Superior Colliculus
			The Control of Saccades Can Be Modified by Experience
			Some Rapid Gaze Shifts Require Coordinated Head and Eye Movements
		The Smooth-Pursuit System Keeps Moving Targets on the Fovea
		The Vergence System Aligns the Eyes to Look at Targets at Different Depths
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	36 Posture
		Equilibrium and Orientation Underlie Posture Control
			Postural Equilibrium Controls the Body's Center of Mass
			Postural Orientation Anticipates Disturbances to Balance
		Postural Responses and Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Use Stereotyped Strategies and Synergies
			Automatic Postural Responses Compensate for Sudden Disturbances
			Anticipatory Postural Adjustments Compensate for Voluntary Movement
			Posture Control Is Integrated With Locomotion
		Somatosensory, Vestibular, and Visual Information Must Be Integrated and Interpreted to Maintain Posture
			Somatosensory Signals Are Important for Timing and Direction of Automatic Postural Responses
			Vestibular Information Is Important for Balance on Unstable Surfaces and During Head Movements
			Visual Inputs Provide the Postural System With Orientation and Motion Information
			Information From a Single Sensory Modality Can Be Ambiguous
			The Postural Control System Uses a Body Schema That Incorporates Internal Models for Balance
		Control of Posture Is Task Dependent
			Task Requirements Determine the Role of Each Sensory System in Postural Equilibrium and Orientation
		Control of Posture Is Distributed in the Nervous System
			Spinal Cord Circuits Are Sufficient for Maintaining Antigravity Support but Not Balance
			The Brain Stem and Cerebellum Integrate Sensory Signals for Posture
			The Spinocerebellum and Basal Ganglia Are Important in Adaptation of Posture
			Cerebral Cortex Centers Contribute to Postural Control
		Highlights
		Suggested Reading
		References
	37 The Cerebellum
		Damage of the Cerebellum Causes Distinctive Symptoms and Signs
			Damage Results in Characteristic Abnormalities of Movement and Posture
			Damage Affects Specific Sensory and Cognitive Abilities
		The Cerebellum Indirectly Controls Movement Through Other Brain Structures
			The Cerebellar Cortex Comprises Repeating Functional Units Having the Same Basic Microcircuit
			The Cerebellar Cortex Is Organized Into Three Functionally Specialized Layers
			The Climbing-Fiber and Mossy-Fiber Afferent Systems Encode and Process Information Differently
			The Cerebellum Is a Large Subcortical Brain Structure
			The Cerebellum Connects With the Cerebral Cortex Through Recurrent Loops
			Different Movements Are Controlled by Functional Longitudinal Zones
		The Cerebellar Microcircuit Architecture Suggests a Canonical Computation
			The Cerebellum Is Hypothesized to Perform Several General Computational Functions
			The Cerebellum Contributes to Feedforward Sensorimotor Control
			The Cerebellum Incorporates an Internal Model of the Motor Apparatus
			The Cerebellum Integrates Sensory Inputs and Corollary Discharge
			The Cerebellum Contributes to Timing Control
		The Cerebellum Participates in Motor Skill Learning
			Climbing-Fiber Activity Changes the Synaptic Efficacy of Parallel Fibers
			The Cerebellum Is Necessary for Motor Learning in Several Different Movement Systems
			Learning Occurs at Several Sites in the Cerebellum
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	38 The Basal Ganglia
		The Basal Ganglia Network Consists of Three Principal Input Nuclei, Two Main Output Nuclei, and One Intrinsic Nucleus
			The Striatum, Subthalamic Nucleus, and Substantia Nigra Pars Compacta/Ventral Tegmental Area Are the Three Principal Input Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia
			The Substantia Nigra Pars Reticulata and the Internal Globus Pallidus Are the Two Principal Output Nuclei of the Basal Ganglia
			The External Globus Pallidus Is Mostly an Intrinsic Structure of the Basal Ganglia
		The Internal Circuitry of the Basal Ganglia Regulates How the Components Interact
			The Traditional Model of the Basal Ganglia Emphasizes Direct and Indirect Pathways
			Detailed Anatomical Analyses Reveal a More Complex Organization
		Basal Ganglia Connections With External Structures Are Characterized by Reentrant Loops
			Inputs Define Functional Territories in the Basal Ganglia
			Output Neurons Project to the External Structures That Provide Input
			Reentrant Loops Are a Cardinal Principle of Basal Ganglia Circuitry
		Physiological Signals Provide Further Clues to Function in the Basal Ganglia
			The Striatum and Subthalamic Nucleus Receive Signals Mainly from the Cerebral Cortex, Thalamus, and Ventral Midbrain
			Ventral Midbrain Dopamine Neurons Receive Input From External Structures and Other Basal Ganglia Nuclei
			Disinhibition Is the Final Expression of Basal Ganglia Output
		Throughout Vertebrate Evolution, the Basal Ganglia Have Been Highly Conserved
		Action Selection Is a Recurring Theme in Basal Ganglia Research
			All Vertebrates Face the Challenge of Choosing One Behavior From Several Competing Options
			Selection Is Required for Motivational, Affective, Cognitive, and Sensorimotor Processing
			The Neural Architecture of the Basal Ganglia Is Configured to Make Selections
			Intrinsic Mechanisms in the Basal Ganglia Promote Selection
			Selection Function of the Basal Ganglia Questioned
		Reinforcement Learning Is an Inherent Property of a Selection Architecture
			Intrinsic Reinforcement Is Mediated by Phasic Dopamine Signaling Within the Basal Ganglia Nuclei
			Extrinsic Reinforcement Could Bias Selection by Operating in Afferent Structures
		Behavioral Selection in the Basal Ganglia Is Under Goal-Directed and Habitual Control
		Diseases of the Basal Ganglia May Involve Disorders of Selection
			A Selection Mechanism Is Likely to Be Vulnerable to Several Potential Malfunctions
			Parkinson Disease Can Be Viewed in Part as a Failure to Select Sensorimotor Options
			Huntington Disease May Reflect a Functional Imbalance Between the Direct and Indirect Pathways
			Schizophrenia May Be Associated With a General Failure to Suppress Nonselected Options
			Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Tourette Syndrome May Also Be Characterized by Intrusions of Nonselected Options
			Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Reflects the Presence of Pathologically Dominant Options
			Addictions Are Associated With Disorders of Reinforcement Mechanisms and Habitual Goals
		Highlights
		Suggested Reading
		References
	39 Brain–Machine Interfaces
		BMIs Measure and Modulate Neural Activity to Help Restore Lost Capabilities
			Cochlear Implants and Retinal Prostheses Can Restore Lost Sensory Capabilities
			Motor and Communication BMIs Can Restore Lost Motor Capabilities
			Pathological Neural Activity Can Be Regulated by Deep Brain Stimulation and Antiseizure BMIs
			Replacement Part BMIs Can Restore Lost Brain Processing Capabilities
			Measuring and Modulating Neural Activity Rely on Advanced Neurotechnology
		BMIs Leverage the Activity of Many Neurons to Decode Movements
			Decoding Algorithms Estimate Intended Movements From Neural Activity
			Discrete Decoders Estimate Movement Goals
			Continuous Decoders Estimate Moment-by-Moment Details of Movements
		Increases in Performance and Capabilities of Motor and Communication BMIs Enable Clinical Translation
			Subjects Can Type Messages Using Communication BMIs
			Subjects Can Reach and Grasp Objects Using BMI-Directed Prosthetic Arms
			Subjects Can Reach and Grasp Objects Using BMI-Directed Stimulation of Paralyzed Arms
		Subjects Can Use Sensory Feedback Delivered by Cortical Stimulation During BMI Control
		BMIs Can Be Used to Advance Basic Neuroscience
		BMIs Raise New Neuroethics Considerations
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part VI The Biology of Emotion, Motivation, and Homeostasis
	40 The Brain Stem
		The Cranial Nerves Are Homologous to the Spinal Nerves
			Cranial Nerves Mediate the Sensory and Motor Functions of the Face and Head and the Autonomic Functions of the Body
			Cranial Nerves Leave the Skull in Groups and Often Are Injured Together
		The Organization of the Cranial Nerve Nuclei Follows the Same Basic Plan as the Sensory and Motor Areas of the Spinal Cord
			Embryonic Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Segmental Organization
			Adult Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Columnar Organization
			The Organization of the Brain Stem Differs From the Spinal Cord in Three Important Ways
		Neuronal Ensembles in the Brain Stem Reticular Formation Coordinate Reflexes and Simple Behaviors Necessary for Homeostasis and Survival
			Cranial Nerve Reflexes Involve Mono- and Polysynaptic Brain Stem Relays
			Pattern Generators Coordinate More Complex Stereotypic Behaviors
			Control of Breathing Provides an Example of How Pattern Generators Are Integrated Into More Complex Behaviors
		Monoaminergic Neurons in the Brain Stem Modulate Sensory, Motor, Autonomic, and Behavioral Functions
			Many Modulatory Systems Use Monoamines as Neurotransmitters
			Monoaminergic Neurons Share Many Cellular Properties
			Autonomic Regulation and Breathing Are Modulated by Monoaminergic Pathways
			Pain Perception Is Modulated by Monoamine Antinociceptive Pathways
			Motor Activity Is Facilitated by Monoaminergic Pathways
			Ascending Monoaminergic Projections Modulate Forebrain Systems for Motivation and Reward
			Monoaminergic and Cholinergic Neurons Maintain Arousal by Modulating Forebrain Neurons
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	41 The Hypothalamus: Autonomic, Hormonal, and Behavioral Control of Survival
		Homeostasis Keeps Physiological Parameters Within a Narrow Range and Is Essential for Survival
		The Hypothalamus Coordinates Homeostatic Regulation
			The Hypothalamus Is Commonly Divided Into Three Rostrocaudal Regions
			Modality-Specific Hypothalamic Neurons Link Interoceptive Sensory Feedback With Outputs That Control Adaptive Behaviors and Physiological Responses
			Modality-Specific Hypothalamic Neurons Also Receive Descending Feedforward Input Regarding Anticipated Homeostatic Challenges
		The Autonomic System Links the Brain to Physiological Responses
			Visceral Motor Neurons in the Autonomic System Are Organized Into Ganglia
			Preganglionic Neurons Are Localized in Three Regions Along the Brain Stem and Spinal Cord
			Sympathetic Ganglia Project to Many Targets Throughout the Body
			Parasympathetic Ganglia Innervate Single Organs
			The Enteric Ganglia Regulate the Gastrointestinal Tract
			Acetylcholine and Norepinephrine Are the Principal Transmitters of Autonomic Motor Neurons
			Autonomic Responses Involve Cooperation Between the Autonomic Divisions
		Visceral Sensory Information Is Relayed to the Brain Stem and Higher Brain Structures
		Central Control of Autonomic Function Can Involve the Periaqueductal Gray, Medial Prefrontal Cortex, and Amygdala
		The Neuroendocrine System Links the Brain to Physiological Responses Through Hormones
			Hypothalamic Axon Terminals in the Posterior Pituitary Release Oxytocin and Vasopressin Directly Into the Blood
			Endocrine Cells in the Anterior Pituitary Secrete Hormones in Response to Specific Factors Released by Hypothalamic Neurons
		Dedicated Hypothalamic Systems Control Specific Homeostatic Parameters
			Body Temperature Is Controlled by Neurons in the Median Preoptic Nucleus
			Water Balance and the Related Thirst Drive Are Controlled by Neurons in the Vascular Organ of the Lamina Terminalis, Median Preoptic Nucleus, and Subfornical Organ
			Energy Balance and the Related Hunger Drive Are Controlled by Neurons in the Arcuate Nucleus
		Sexually Dimorphic Regions in the Hypothalamus Control Sex, Aggression, and Parenting
			Sexual Behavior and Aggression Are Controlled by the Preoptic Hypothalamic Area and a Subarea of the Ventromedial Hypothalamic Nucleus
			Parental Behavior Is Controlled by the Preoptic Hypothalamic Area
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	42 Emotion
		The Modern Search for the Neural Circuitry of Emotion Began in the Late 19th Century
		The Amygdala Has Been Implicated in Both Learned and Innate Fear
			The Amygdala Has Been Implicated in Innate Fear in Animals
			The Amygdala Is Important for Fear in Humans
			The Amygdala's Role Extends to Positive Emotions
		Emotional Responses Can Be Updated Through Extinction and Regulation
		Emotion Can Influence Cognitive Processes
		Many Other Brain Areas Contribute to Emotional Processing
		Functional Neuroimaging Is Contributing to Our Understanding of Emotion in Humans
			Functional Imaging Has Identified Neural Correlates of Feelings
			Emotion Is Related to Homeostasis
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	43 Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States
		Motivational States Influence Goal-Directed Behavior
			Both Internal and External Stimuli Contribute to Motivational States
			Rewards Can Meet Both Regulatory and Nonregulatory Needs on Short and Long Timescales
			The Brain's Reward Circuitry Provides a Biological Substrate for Goal Selection
			Dopamine May Act as a Learning Signal
		Drug Addiction Is a Pathological Reward State
			All Drugs of Abuse Target Neurotransmitter Receptors, Transporters, or Ion Channels
			Repeated Exposure to a Drug of Abuse Induces Lasting Behavioral Adaptations
			Lasting Molecular Adaptations Are Induced in Brain Reward Regions by Repeated Drug Exposure
			Lasting Cellular and Circuit Adaptations Mediate Aspects of the Drug-Addicted State
			Natural Addictions Share Biological Mechanisms With Drug Addictions
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	44 Sleep and Wakefulness
		Sleep Consists of Alternating Periods of REM Sleep and Non-REM Sleep
		The Ascending Arousal System Promotes Wakefulness
			The Ascending Arousal System in the Brain Stem and Hypothalamus Innervates the Forebrain
			Damage to the Ascending Arousal System Causes Coma
			Circuits Composed of Mutually Inhibitory Neurons Control Transitions From Wake to Sleep and From Non- REM to REM Sleep
		Sleep Is Regulated by Homeostatic and Circadian Drives
			The Homeostatic Pressure for Sleep Depends on Humoral Factors
			Circadian Rhythms Are Controlled by a Biological Clock in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
			Circadian Control of Sleep Depends on Hypothalamic Relays
			Sleep Loss Impairs Cognition and Memory
		Sleep Changes With Age
		Disruptions in Sleep Circuitry Contribute to Many Sleep Disorders
			Insomnia May Be Caused by Incomplete Inhibition of the Arousal System
			Sleep Apnea Fragments Sleep and Impairs Cognition
			Narcolepsy Is Caused by a Loss of Orexinergic Neurons
			REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Is Caused by Failure of REM Sleep Paralysis Circuits
			Restless Legs Syndrome and Periodic Limb Movement Disorder Disrupt Sleep
			Non-REM Parasomnias Include Sleepwalking, Sleep Talking, and Night Terrors
		Sleep Has Many Functions
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part VII Development and the Emergence of Behavior
	45 Patterning the Nervous System
		The Neural Tube Arises From the Ectoderm
		Secreted Signals Promote Neural Cell Fate
			Development of the Neural Plate Is Induced by Signals From the Organizer Region
			Neural Induction Is Mediated by Peptide Growth Factors and Their Inhibitors
		Rostrocaudal Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Signaling Gradients and Secondary Organizing Centers
			The Neural Tube Becomes Regionalized Early in Development
			Signals From the Mesoderm and Endoderm Define the Rostrocaudal Pattern of the Neural Plate
			Signals From Organizing Centers Within the Neural Tube Pattern the Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain
			Repressive Interactions Divide the Hindbrain Into Segments
		Dorsoventral Patterning of the Neural Tube Involves Similar Mechanisms at Different Rostrocaudal Levels
			The Ventral Neural Tube Is Patterned by Sonic Hedgehog Protein Secreted from the Notochord and Floor Plate
			The Dorsal Neural Tube Is Patterned by Bone Morphogenetic Proteins
			Dorsoventral Patterning Mechanisms Are Conserved Along the Rostrocaudal Extent of the Neural Tube
		Local Signals Determine Functional Subclasses of Neurons
			Rostrocaudal Position Is a Major Determinant of Motor Neuron Subtype
			Local Signals and Transcriptional Circuits Further Diversify Motor Neuron Subtypes
		The Developing Forebrain Is Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Influences
			Inductive Signals and Transcription Factor Gradients Establish Regional Differentiation
			Afferent Inputs Also Contribute to Regionalization
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	46 Differentiation and Survival of Nerve Cells
		The Proliferation of Neural Progenitor Cells Involves Symmetric and Asymmetric Cell Divisions
		Radial Glial Cells Serve as Neural Progenitors and Structural Scaffolds
		The Generation of Neurons and Glial Cells Is Regulated by Delta-Notch Signaling and Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors
		The Layers of the Cerebral Cortex Are Established by Sequential Addition of Newborn Neurons
		Neurons Migrate Long Distances From Their Site of Origin to Their Final Position
			Excitatory Cortical Neurons Migrate Radially Along Glial Guides
			Cortical Interneurons Arise Subcortically and Migrate Tangentially to Cortex
			Neural Crest Cell Migration in the Peripheral Nervous System Does Not Rely on Scaffolding
		Structural and Molecular Innovations Underlie the Expansion of the Human Cerebral Cortex
		Intrinsic Programs and Extrinsic Factors Determine the Neurotransmitter Phenotypes of Neurons
			Neurotransmitter Choice Is a Core Component of Transcriptional Programs of Neuronal Differentiation
			Signals From Synaptic Inputs and Targets Can Influence the Transmitter Phenotypes of Neurons
		The Survival of a Neuron Is Regulated by Neurotrophic Signals From the Neuron's Target
			The Neurotrophic Factor Hypothesis Was Confirmed by the Discovery of Nerve Growth Factor
			Neurotrophins Are the Best-Studied Neurotrophic Factors
			Neurotrophic Factors Suppress a Latent Cell Death Program
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	47 The Growth and Guidance of Axons
		Differences Between Axons and Dendrites Emerge Early in Development
		Dendrites Are Patterned by Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors
		The Growth Cone Is a Sensory Transducer and a Motor Structure
		Molecular Cues Guide Axons to Their Targets
		The Growth of Retinal Ganglion Axons Is Oriented in a Series of Discrete Steps
			Growth Cones Diverge at the Optic Chiasm
			Gradients of Ephrins Provide Inhibitory Signals in the Brain
		Axons From Some Spinal Neurons Are Guided Across the Midline
			Netrins Direct Developing Commissural Axons Across the Midline
			Chemoattractant and Chemorepellent Factors Pattern the Midline
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	48 Formation and Elimination of Synapses
		Neurons Recognize Specific Synaptic Targets
			Recognition Molecules Promote Selective Synapse Formation in the Visual System
			Sensory Receptors Promote Targeting of Olfactory Neurons
			Different Synaptic Inputs Are Directed to Discrete Domains of the Postsynaptic Cell
			Neural Activity Sharpens Synaptic Specificity
		Principles of Synaptic Differentiation Are Revealed at the Neuromuscular Junction
			Differentiation of Motor Nerve Terminals Is Organized by Muscle Fibers
			Differentiation of the Postsynaptic Muscle Membrane Is Organized by the Motor Nerve
			The Nerve Regulates Transcription of Acetylcholine Receptor Genes
			The Neuromuscular Junction Matures in a Series of Steps
		Central Synapses and Neuromuscular Junctions Develop in Similar Ways
			Neurotransmitter Receptors Become Localized at Central Synapses
			Synaptic Organizing Molecules Pattern Central Nerve Terminals
		Some Synapses Are Eliminated After Birth
		Glial Cells Regulate Both Formation and Elimination of Synapses
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	49 Experience and the Refinement of Synaptic Connections
		Development of Human Mental Function Is Influenced by Early Experience
			Early Experience Has Lifelong Effects on Social Behaviors
			Development of Visual Perception Requires Visual Experience
		Development of Binocular Circuits in the Visual Cortex Depends on Postnatal Activity
			Visual Experience Affects the Structure and Function of the Visual Cortex
			Patterns of Electrical Activity Organize Binocular Circuits
		Reorganization of Visual Circuits During a Critical Period Involves Alterations in Synaptic Connections
			Cortical Reorganization Depends on Changes in Both Excitation and Inhibition
			Synaptic Structures Are Altered During the Critical Period
			Thalamic Inputs Are Remodeled During the Critical Period
			Synaptic Stabilization Contributes to Closing the Critical Period
		Experience-Independent Spontaneous Neural Activity Leads to Early Circuit Refinement
		Activity-Dependent Refinement of Connections Is a General Feature of Brain Circuitry
			Many Aspects of Visual System Development Are Activity-Dependent
			Sensory Modalities Are Coordinated During a Critical Period
			Different Functions and Brain Regions Have Different Critical Periods of Development
		Critical Periods Can Be Reopened in Adulthood
			Visual and Auditory Maps Can Be Aligned in Adults
			Binocular Circuits Can Be Remodeled in Adults
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	50 Repairing the Damaged Brain
		Damage to the Axon Affects Both the Neuron and Neighboring Cells
			Axon Degeneration Is an Active Process
			Axotomy Leads to Reactive Responses in Nearby Cells
		Central Axons Regenerate Poorly After Injury
		Therapeutic Interventions May Promote Regeneration of Injured Central Neurons
			Environmental Factors Support the Regeneration of Injured Axons
			Components of Myelin Inhibit Neurite Outgrowth
			Injury-Induced Scarring Hinders Axonal Regeneration
			An Intrinsic Growth Program Promotes Regeneration
			Formation of New Connections by Intact Axons Can Lead to Recovery of Function Following Injury
		Neurons in the Injured Brain Die but New Ones Can Be Born
		Therapeutic Interventions May Retain or Replace Injured Central Neurons
			Transplantation of Neurons or Their Progenitors Can Replace Lost Neurons
			Stimulation of Neurogenesis in Regions of Injury May Contribute to Restoring Function
			Transplantation of Nonneuronal Cells or Their Progenitors Can Improve Neuronal Function
			Restoration of Function Is the Aim of Regenerative Therapies
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	51 Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System
		Genes and Hormones Determine Physical Differences Between Males and Females
			Chromosomal Sex Directs the Gonadal Differentiation of the Embryo
			Gonads Synthesize Hormones That Promote Sexual Differentiation
			Disorders of Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis Affect Sexual Differentiation
		Sexual Differentiation of the Nervous System Generates Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
			Erectile Function Is Controlled by a Sexually Dimorphic Circuit in the Spinal Cord
			Song Production in Birds Is Controlled by Sexually Dimorphic Circuits in the Forebrain
			Mating Behavior in Mammals Is Controlled by a Sexually Dimorphic Neural Circuit in the Hypothalamus
		Environmental Cues Regulate Sexually Dimorphic Behaviors
			Pheromones Control Partner Choice in Mice
			Early Experience Modifies Later Maternal Behavior
			A Set of Core Mechanisms Underlies Many Sexual Dimorphisms in the Brain and Spinal Cord
		The Human Brain Is Sexually Dimorphic
			Sexual Dimorphisms in Humans May Arise From Hormonal Action or Experience
			Dimorphic Structures in the Brain Correlate with Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part VIII Learning, Memory, Language and Cognition
	52 Learning and Memory
		Short-Term and Long-Term Memory Involve Different Neural Systems
			Short-Term Memory Maintains Transient Representations of Information Relevant to Immediate Goals
			Information Stored in Short-Term Memory Is Selectively Transferred to Long-Term Memory
		The Medial Temporal Lobe Is Critical for Episodic Long-Term Memory
			Episodic Memory Processing Involves Encoding, Storage, Retrieval, and Consolidation
			Episodic Memory Involves Interactions Between the Medial Temporal Lobe and Association Cortices
			Episodic Memory Contributes to Imagination and Goal-Directed Behavior
			The Hippocampus Supports Episodic Memory by Building Relational Associations
		Implicit Memory Supports a Range of Behaviors in Humans and Animals
			Different Forms of Implicit Memory Involve Different Neural Circuits
			Implicit Memory Can Be Associative or Nonassociative
			Operant Conditioning Involves Associating a Specific Behavior With a Reinforcing Event
			Associative Learning Is Constrained by the Biology of the Organism
		Errors and Imperfections in Memory Shed Light on Normal Memory Processes
		Highlights
		Suggested Reading
		References
	53 Cellular Mechanisms of Implicit Memory Storage and the Biological Basis of Individuality
		Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Changes in the Effectiveness of Synaptic Transmission
			Habituation Results From Presynaptic Depression of Synaptic Transmission
			Sensitization Involves Presynaptic Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission
			Classical Threat Conditioning Involves Facilitation of Synaptic Transmission
		Long-Term Storage of Implicit Memory Involves Synaptic Changes Mediated by the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway
			Cyclic AMP Signaling Has a Role in Long-Term Sensitization
			The Role of Noncoding RNAs in the Regulation of Transcription
			Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation Is Synapse Specific
			Maintaining Long-Term Synaptic Facilitation Requires a Prion-Like Protein Regulator of Local Protein Synthesis
			Memory Stored in a Sensory-Motor Synapse Becomes Destabilized Following Retrieval but Can Be Restabilized
		Classical Threat Conditioning of Defensive Responses in Flies Also Uses the cAMP-PKA-CREB Pathway
		Memory of Threat Learning in Mammals Involves the Amygdala
		Learning-Induced Changes in the Structure of the Brain Contribute to the Biological Basis of Individuality
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	54 The Hippocampus and the Neural Basis of Explicit Memory Storage
		Explicit Memory in Mammals Involves Synaptic Plasticity in the Hippocampus
			Long-Term Potentiation at Distinct Hippocampal Pathways Is Essential for Explicit Memory Storage
			Different Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms Contribute to the Forms of Expression of Long-Term Potentiation
			Long-Term Potentiation Has Early and Late Phases
			Spike-Timing-Dependent Plasticity Provides a More Natural Mechanism for Altering Synaptic Strength
			Long-Term Potentiation in the Hippocampus Has Properties That Make It Useful as A Mechanism for Memory Storage
			Spatial Memory Depends on Long-Term Potentiation
		Explicit Memory Storage Also Depends on Long-Term Depression of Synaptic Transmission
		Memory Is Stored in Cell Assemblies
		Different Aspects of Explicit Memory Are Processed in Different Subregions of the Hippocampus
			The Dentate Gyrus Is Important for Pattern Separation
			The CA3 Region Is Important for Pattern Completion
			The CA2 Region Encodes Social Memory
		A Spatial Map of the External World Is Formed in the Hippocampus
			Entorhinal Cortex Neurons Provide a Distinct Representation of Space
			Place Cells Are Part of the Substrate for Spatial Memory
		Disorders of Autobiographical Memory Result From Functional Perturbations in the Hippocampus
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	55 Language
		Language Has Many Structural Levels: Phonemes, Morphemes, Words, and Sentences
		Language Acquisition in Children Follows a Universal Pattern
			The "Universalist"� Infant Becomes Linguistically Specialized by Age 1
			The Visual System Is Engaged in Language Production and Perception
			Prosodic Cues Are Learned as Early as In Utero
			Transitional Probabilities Help Distinguish Words in Continuous Speech
			There Is a Critical Period for Language Learning
			The "Parentese"� Speaking Style Enhances Language Learning
			Successful Bilingual Learning Depends on the Age at Which the Second Language Is Learned
		A New Model for the Neural Basis of Language Has Emerged
			Numerous Specialized Cortical Regions Contribute to Language Processing
			The Neural Architecture for Language Develops Rapidly During Infancy
			The Left Hemisphere Is Dominant for Language
			Prosody Engages Both Right and Left Hemispheres Depending on the Information Conveyed
		Studies of the Aphasias Have Provided Insights into Language Processing
			Broca's Aphasia Results From a Large Lesion in the Left Frontal Lobe
			Wernicke's Aphasia Results From Damage to Left Posterior Temporal Lobe Structures
			Conduction Aphasia Results From Damage to a Sector of Posterior Language Areas
			Global Aphasia Results From Widespread Damage to Several Language Centers
			Transcortical Aphasias Result From Damage to Areas Near Broca's and Wernicke's Areas
			Less Common Aphasias Implicate Additional Brain Areas Important for Language
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	56 Decision-Making and Consciousness
		Perceptual Discriminations Require a Decision Rule
			A Simple Decision Rule Is the Application of a Threshold to a Representation of the Evidence
			Perceptual Decisions Involving Deliberation Mimic Aspects of Real-Life Decisions Involving Cognitive Faculties
		Neurons in Sensory Areas of the Cortex Supply the Noisy Samples of Evidence to Decision-Making
		Accumulation of Evidence to a Threshold Explains the Speed Versus Accuracy Trade-Off
		Neurons in the Parietal and Prefrontal Association Cortex Represent a Decision Variable
		Perceptual Decision-Making Is a Model for Reasoning From Samples of Evidence
		Decisions About Preference Use Evidence About Value
		Decision-Making Offers a Framework for Understanding Thought Processes, States of Knowing, and States of Awareness
		Consciousness Can be Understood Through the Lens of Decision Making
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Part IX Diseases of the Nervous System
	57 Diseases of the Peripheral Nerve and Motor Unit
		Disorders of the Peripheral Nerve, Neuromuscular Junction, and Muscle Can Be Distinguished Clinically
		A Variety of Diseases Target Motor Neurons and Peripheral Nerves
			Motor Neuron Diseases Do Not Affect Sensory Neurons (Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis)
			Diseases of Peripheral Nerves Affect Conduction of the Action Potential
			The Molecular Basis of Some Inherited Peripheral Neuropathies Has Been Defined
		Disorders of Synaptic Transmission at the Neuromuscular Junction Have Multiple Causes
			Myasthenia Gravis Is the Best-Studied Example of a Neuromuscular Junction Disease
			Treatment of Myasthenia Is Based on the Physiological Effects and Autoimmune Pathogenesis of the Disease
			There Are Two Distinct Congenital Forms of Myasthenia Gravis
			Lambert-Eaton Syndrome and Botulism Also Alter Neuromuscular Transmission
		Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Can Be Inherited or Acquired
			Dermatomyositis Exemplifies Acquired Myopathy
			Muscular Dystrophies Are the Most Common Inherited Myopathies
			Some Inherited Diseases of Skeletal Muscle Arise From Genetic Defects in Voltage-Gated Ion Channels
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	58 Seizures and Epilepsy
		Classification of Seizures and the Epilepsies Is Important for Pathogenesis and Treatment
			Seizures Are Temporary Disruptions of Brain Function
			Epilepsy Is a Chronic Condition of Recurrent Seizures
		The Electroencephalogram Represents the Collective Activity of Cortical Neurons
		Focal Onset Seizures Originate Within a Small Group of Neurons
			Neurons in a Seizure Focus Have Abnormal Bursting Activity
			The Breakdown of Surround Inhibition Leads to Synchronization
			The Spread of Seizure Activity Involves Normal Cortical Circuitry
		Generalized Onset Seizures Are Driven by Thalamocortical Circuits
		Locating the Seizure Focus Is Critical to the Surgical Treatment of Epilepsy
		Prolonged Seizures Can Cause Brain Damage
			Repeated Convulsive Seizures Are a Medical Emergency
			Excitotoxicity Underlies Seizure-Related Brain Damage
		The Factors Leading to Development of Epilepsy Are Poorly Understood
			Mutations in Ion Channels Are Among the Genetic Causes of Epilepsy
			The Genesis of Acquired Epilepsies Is a Maladaptive Response to Injury
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	59 Disorders of Conscious and Unconscious Mental Processes
		Conscious and Unconscious Cognitive Processes Have Distinct Neural Correlates
		Differences Between Conscious and Unconscious Processes in Perception Can Be Seen in Exaggerated Form After Brain Damage
		The Control of Action Is Largely Unconscious
		The Conscious Recall of Memories Is a Creative Process
		Behavioral Observation Needs to Be Supplemented With Subjective Reports
			Verification of Subjective Reports Is Challenging
			Malingering and Hysteria Can Lead to Unreliable Subjective Reports
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	60 Disorders of Thought and Volition in Schizophrenia
		Schizophrenia Is Characterized by Cognitive Impairments, Deficit Symptoms, and Psychotic Symptoms
			Schizophrenia Has a Characteristic Course of Illness With Onset During the Second and Third Decades of Life
			The Psychotic Symptoms of Schizophrenia Tend to Be Episodic
		The Risk of Schizophrenia Is Highly Influenced by Genes
		Schizophrenia Is Characterized by Abnormalities in Brain Structure and Function
			Loss of Gray Matter in the Cerebral Cortex Appears to Result From Loss of Synaptic Contacts Rather Than Loss of Cells
			Abnormalities in Brain Development During Adolescence May Be Responsible for Schizophrenia
		Antipsychotic Drugs Act on Dopaminergic Systems in the Brain
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	61 Disorders of Mood and Anxiety
		Mood Disorders Can Be Divided Into Two General Classes: Unipolar Depression and Bipolar Disorder
			Major Depressive Disorder Differs Significantly From Normal Sadness
			Major Depressive Disorder Often Begins Early in Life
			A Diagnosis of Bipolar Disorder Requires an Episode of Mania
		Anxiety Disorders Represent Significant Dysregulation of Fear Circuitry
		Both Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors Contribute to Mood and Anxiety Disorders
		Depression and Stress Share Overlapping Neural Mechanisms
		Dysfunctions of Human Brain Structures and Circuits Involved in Mood and Anxiety Disorders Can Be Identified by Neuroimaging
			Identification of Abnormally Functioning Neural Circuits Helps Explain Symptoms and May Suggest Treatments
			A Decrease in Hippocampal Volume Is Associated With Mood Disorders
		Major Depression and Anxiety Disorders Can Be Treated Effectively
			Current Antidepressant Drugs Affect Monoaminergic Neural Systems
			Ketamine Shows Promise as a Rapidly Acting Drug to Treat Major Depressive Disorder
			Psychotherapy Is Effective in the Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder and Anxiety Disorders
			Electroconvulsive Therapy Is Highly Effective Against Depression
			Newer Forms of Neuromodulation Are Being Developed to Treat Depression
			Bipolar Disorder Can Be Treated With Lithium and Several Anticonvulsant Drugs
			Second-Generation Antipsychotic Drugs Are Useful Treatments for Bipolar Disorder
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	62 Disorders Affecting Social Cognition: Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Autism Spectrum Disorder Phenotypes Share Characteristic Behavioral Features
		Autism Spectrum Disorder Phenotypes Also Share Distinctive Cognitive Abnormalities
			Social Communication Is Impaired in Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Mind Blindness Hypothesis
			Other Social Mechanisms Contribute to Autism Spectrum Disorder
			People With Autism Show a Lack of Behavioral Flexibility
			Some Individuals With Autism Have Special Talents
		Genetic Factors Increase Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Rare Genetic Syndromes Have Provided Initial Insights Into the Biology of Autism Spectrum Disorders
			Fragile X Syndrome
			Rett Syndrome
			Williams Syndrome
			Angelman Syndrome and Prader-Willi Syndrome
			Neurodevelopmental Syndromes Provide Insight Into the Mechanisms of Social Cognition
		The Complex Genetics of Common Forms of Autism Spectrum Disorder Are Being Clarified
		Genetics and Neuropathology Are Illuminating the Neural Mechanisms of Autism Spectrum Disorder
			Genetic Findings Can Be Interpreted Using Systems Biological Approaches
			Autism Spectrum Disorder Genes Have Been Studied in a Variety of Model Systems
			Postmortem and Brain Tissue Studies Provide Insight Into Autism Spectrum Disorder Pathology
		Advances in Basic and Translational Science Provide a Path to Elucidate the Pathophysiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	63  Genetic Mechanisms in Neurodegenerative Diseases of the Nervous System
		Huntington Disease Involves Degeneration of the Striatum
		Spinobulbar Muscular Atrophy Is Caused by Androgen Receptor Dysfunction
		Hereditary Spinocerebellar Ataxias Share Similar Symptoms but Have Distinct Etiologies
		Parkinson Disease Is a Common Degenerative Disorder of the Elderly
		Selective Neuronal Loss Occurs After Damage to Ubiquitously Expressed Genes
		Animal Models Are Productive Tools for Studying Neurodegenerative Diseases
			Mouse Models Reproduce Many Features of Neurodegenerative Diseases
			Invertebrate Models Manifest Progressive Neurodegeneration
		The Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative Diseases Follows Several Pathways
			Protein Misfolding and Degradation Contribute to Parkinson Disease
			Protein Misfolding Triggers Pathological Alterations in Gene Expression
			Mitochondrial Dysfunction Exacerbates Neurodegenerative Disease
			Apoptosis and Caspases Modify the Severity of Neurodegeneration
		Understanding the Molecular Dynamics of Neurodegenerative Diseases Suggests Approaches to Therapeutic Intervention
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
	64  The Aging Brain
		The Structure and Function of the Brain Change With Age
		Cognitive Decline Is Significant and Debilitating in a Substantial Fraction of the Elderly
		Alzheimer Disease Is the Most Common Cause of Dementia
		The Brain in Alzheimer Disease Is Altered by Atrophy, Amyloid Plaques, and Neurofibrillary Tangles
			Amyloid Plaques Contain Toxic Peptides That Contribute to Alzheimer Pathology
			Neurofibrillary Tangles Contain Microtubule-Associated Proteins
			Risk Factors for Alzheimer Disease Have Been Identified
		Alzheimer Disease Can Now Be Diagnosed Well but Available Treatments Are Unsatisfactory
		Highlights
		Selected Reading
		References
Index