Principles of General Chemistry, 2nd Edition

3.3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 6
1 CHAPTER Keys to the Study of Chemistry......Page 24
1.1 Some Fundamental Definitions......Page 25
1.2 The Scientific Approach: Developing a Model......Page 31
1.3 Chemical Problem Solving......Page 33
1.4 Measurement in Scientific Study......Page 37
1.5 Uncertainty in Measurement: Significant Figures......Page 43
2 CHAPTER The Components of Matter......Page 54
2.1 Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures: An Atomic Overview......Page 55
2.2 The Observations That Led to an Atomic View of Matter......Page 57
2.3 Dalton's Atomic Theory......Page 60
2.4 The Observations That Led to the Nuclear Atom Model......Page 61
2.5 The Atomic Theory Today......Page 64
2.6 Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table......Page 69
2.7 Compounds: Introduction to Bonding......Page 71
2.8 Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses......Page 74
2.9 Classification of Mixtures......Page 83
3 CHAPTER Stoichiometry of Formulas and Equations......Page 94
3.1 The Mole......Page 95
3.2 Determining the Formula of an Unknown Compound......Page 102
3.4 Calculating Amounts of Reactant and Product......Page 112
5.7 Real Gases: Deviations from Ideal Behavior......Page 7
4 CHAPTER Three Major Classes of Chemical Reactions......Page 136
4.1 The Role of Water as a Solvent......Page 137
4.2 Writing Equations for Aqueous Ionic Reactions......Page 140
4.3 Precipitation Reactions......Page 142
4.4 Acid-Base Reactions......Page 146
4.5 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions......Page 152
4.6 Elements in Redox Reactions......Page 156
5 CHAPTER Gases and the Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 168
5.1 An Overview of the Physical States of Matter......Page 169
5.2 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement......Page 170
5.3 The Gas Laws and Their Experimental Foundations......Page 173
5.4 Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law......Page 177
5.5 The Ideal Gas Law and Reaction Stoichiometry......Page 188
5.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory: A Model for Gas Behavior......Page 190
6 CHAPTER Thermochemistry: Energy Flow and Chemical Change......Page 208
6.1 Forms of Energy and Their Interconversion......Page 209
6.2 Enthalpy: Heats of Reaction and Chemical Change......Page 216
6.3 Calorimetry: Laboratory Measurement of Heats of Reaction......Page 218
6.4 Stoichiometry of Thermochemical Equations......Page 222
6.5 Hess's Law of Heat Summation......Page 223
6.6 Standard Heats of Reaction ( H rxn)......Page 226
7 CHAPTER Quantum Theory and Atomic Structure......Page 237
7.1 The Nature of Light......Page 238
8.1 Development of the Periodic Table......Page 8
7.3 The Wave-Particle Duality of Matter and Energy......Page 251
8.2 Characteristics of Many-Electron Atoms......Page 269
8.3 The Quantum-Mechanical Model and the Periodic Table......Page 273
8.4 Trends in Three Key Atomic Properties......Page 282
8.5 Atomic Structure and Chemical Reactivity......Page 290
9 CHAPTER Models of Chemical Bonding......Page 301
9.1 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds......Page 302
9.2 The Ionic Bonding Model......Page 305
9.3 The Covalent Bonding Model......Page 310
9.4 Bond Energy and Chemical Change......Page 316
9.5 Between the Extremes: Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 319
10 CHAPTER The Shapes of Molecules......Page 328
10.1 Depicting Molecules and Ions with Lewis Structures......Page 329
10.2 Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory and Molecular Shape......Page 338
10.3 Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity......Page 347
11 CHAPTER Theories of Covalent Bonding......Page 355
11.1 Valence Bond (VB) Theory and Orbital Hybridization......Page 356
11.2 The Mode of Orbital Overlap and the Types of Covalent Bonds......Page 363
11.3 Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory and Electron Delocalization......Page 9
12 CHAPTER Intermolecular Forces: Liquids, Solids, and Phase Changes......Page 379
12.1 An Overview of Physical States and Phase Changes......Page 380
12.2 Quantitative Aspects of Phase Changes......Page 383
12.3 Types of Intermolecular Forces......Page 391
12.4 Properties of the Liquid State......Page 398
12.5 The Uniqueness of Water......Page 400
12.6 The Solid State: Structure, Properties, and Bonding......Page 402
13 CHAPTER The Properties of Solutions......Page 421
13.1 Types of Solutions: Intermolecular Forces and Solubility......Page 422
13.2 Why Substances Dissolve: Understanding the Solution Process......Page 427
13.3 Solubility as an Equilibrium Process......Page 431
13.4 Quantitative Ways of Expressing Concentration......Page 435
13.5 Colligative Properties of Solutions......Page 439
14 CHAPTER The Main-Group Elements: Applying Principles of Bonding and Structure......Page 456
14.1 Hydrogen, the Simplest Atom......Page 457
14.2 Group 1A(1): The Alkali Metals......Page 458
14.3 Group 2A(2): The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 461
14.4 Group 3A(13): The Boron Family......Page 463
14.5 Group 4A(14): The Carbon Family......Page 465
14.6 Group 5A(15): The Nitrogen Family......Page 470
14.7 Group 6A(16): The Oxygen Family......Page 475
15 CHAPTER Organic Compounds and the Atomic Properties of Carbon......Page 10
15.1 The Special Nature of Carbon and the Characteristics of Organic Molecules......Page 490
15.2 The Structures and Classes of Hydrocarbons......Page 492
15.3 Some Important Classes of Organic Reactions......Page 504
15.4 Properties and Reactivities of Common Functional Groups......Page 505
15.5 The Monomer-Polymer Theme I: Synthetic Macromolecules......Page 515
15.6 The Monomer-Polymer Theme II: Biological Macromolecules......Page 518
16 CHAPTER Kinetics: Rates and Mechanisms of Chemical Reactions......Page 530
16.1 Factors That Influence Reaction Rate......Page 531
16.2 Expressing the Reaction Rate......Page 532
16.3 The Rate Law and Its Components......Page 537
16.4 Integrated Rate Laws: Concentration Changes over Time......Page 543
16.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate......Page 550
16.6 Explaining the Effects of Concentration and Temperature......Page 552
16.7 Reaction Mechanisms: Steps in the Overall Reaction......Page 557
16.8 Catalysis: Speeding Up a Chemical Reaction......Page 563
17 CHAPTER Equilibrium: The Extent of Chemical Reactions......Page 575
17.1 The Equilibrium State and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 576
18.2 Autoionization of Water and the pH Scale......Page 11
17.3 Expressing Equilibria with Pressure Terms: Relation Between Kc and Kp......Page 584
17.4 Reaction Direction: Comparing Q and K......Page 585
17.5 How to Solve Equilibrium Problems......Page 677
17.6 Reaction Conditions and the Equilibrium State: Le Ch®telier's Principle......Page 596
18 CHAPTER Acid-Base Equilibria......Page 613
18.1 Acids and Bases in Water......Page 614
18.3 Proton Transfer and the Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition......Page 623
18.4 Solving Problems Involving Weak-Acid Equilibria......Page 628
18.5 Weak Bases and Their Relation to Weak Acids......Page 633
18.6 Molecular Properties and Acid Strength......Page 637
18.7 Acid-Base Properties of Salt Solutions......Page 640
18.8 Electron-Pair Donation and the Lewis Acid-Base Definition......Page 644
19 CHAPTER Ionic Equilibria in Aqueous Systems......Page 12
19.1 Equilibria of Acid-Base Buffer Systems......Page 655
19.2 Acid-Base Titration Curves......Page 664
19.3 Equilibria of Slightly Soluble Ionic Compounds......Page 672
19.4 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions......Page 682
20 CHAPTER Thermodynamics: Entropy, Free Energy, and the Direction of Chemical Reactions......Page 692
20.1 The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Predicting Spontaneous Change......Page 693
20.2 Calculating the Change in Entropy of a Reaction......Page 704
20.3 Entropy, Free Energy, and Work......Page 709
20.4 Free Energy, Equilibrium, and Reaction Direction......Page 716
21 CHAPTER Electrochemistry: Chemical Change and Electrical Work......Page 727
21.1 Redox Reactions and Electrochemical Cells......Page 728
21.2 Voltaic Cells: Using Spontaneous Reactions to Generate Electrical Energy......Page 733
21.3 Cell Potential: Output of a Voltaic Cell......Page 738
21.4 Free Energy and Electrical Work......Page 746
21.5 Electrochemical Processes in Batteries......Page 755
21.6 Corrosion: A Case of Environmental Electrochemistry......Page 759
21.7 Electrolytic Cells: Using Electrical Energy to Drive Nonspontaneous Reactions......Page 761
22 CHAPTER The Transition Elements and Their Coordination Compounds......Page 779
22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements......Page 780
22.2 Coordination Compounds......Page 786
22.3 Theoretical Basis for the Bonding and Properties of Complexes......Page 793
23 CHAPTER Nuclear Reactions and Their Applications......Page 807
23.1 Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Stability......Page 808
23.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay......Page 816
23.3 Nuclear Transmutation: Induced Changes in Nuclei......Page 820
23.4 The Effects of Nuclear Radiation on Matter......Page 822
23.5 Applications of Radioisotopes......Page 824
23.6 The Interconversion of Mass and Energy......Page 827
23.7 Applications of Fission and Fusion......Page 830
Appendix A Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry......Page 839
Appendix B Standard Thermodynamic Values for Selected Substances......Page 843
Appendix C Equilibrium Constants for Selected Substances......Page 846
Appendix D Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials......Page 852
Appendix E Answers to Selected Problems......Page 853
Glossary......Page 878
Credits......Page 893
Index......Page 894