Principles of environmental science ; inquiry et applications

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Brief Contents
Contents
List of Case Studies
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Understanding Our Environment
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Sustainability and Power on the Reservation
		1.1 What Is Environmental Science?
			Environmental science integrates many fields
			Environmental science is global
		Active Learning Finding Your Strengths in This Class
			Environmental science helps us understand our remarkable planet
			Methods in environmental science
		1.2 Major Themes in Environmental Science
			Environmental quality
			Human population and well-being
			Natural resources
		1.3 Human Dimensions of Environmental Science
			How do we describe resource use and conservation?
			Planetary boundaries
			Sustainability requires environmental and social progress
		Key Concepts Sustainable development
			What is the state of poverty and wealth today?
			Indigenous peoples safeguard biodiversity
		1.4 Science Helps Us Understand Our World
			Science depends on skepticism and reproducibility
			We use both deductive and inductive reasoning
			The scientific method is an orderly way to examine problems
			Understanding probability reduces uncertainty
			Experimental design can reduce bias
		Active Learning Calculating Probability
			Science is a cumulative process
		Exploring Science Understanding sustainable development with statistics
			What is sound science?
		What Do You Think? Science and Citizenship: Evidence-Based Policy vs. Policy-Based Evidence?
			Uncertainty, proof, and group identity
		1.5 Critical Thinking
			Critical thinking is part of science and of citizenship
		1.6 Where Do Our Ideas About the Environment Come From?
			Environmental protection has historic roots
			Resource waste triggered pragmatic resource conservation (stage 1)
			Ethical and aesthetic concerns inspired the preservation movement (stage 2)
			Rising pollution levels led to the modern environmental movement (stage 3)
			Environmental quality is tied to social progress (stage 4)
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Working with Graphs
2 Environmental Systems: Matter, Energy, and Life
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Death by Fertilizer: Hypoxia in the Gulf of Mexico
		2.1 Systems Describe Interactions
			Systems can be described in terms of their characteristics
			Feedback loops help stabilize systems
		2.2 Elements of Life
			Matter is recycled but not destroyed
			Elements have predictable characteristics
			Electrical charges keep atoms together
			Water has unique properties
			Acids and bases release reactive H+ and OH-
			Organic compounds have a carbon backbone
			Cells are the fundamental units of life
			Nitrogen and phosphorus are key nutrients
		What Do You Think? Gene Editing
		2.3 Energy and Living Systems
			Energy occurs in different types and qualities
			Thermodynamics describes the conservation and degradation of energy
			Organisms live by capturing energy
			Green plants get energy from the sun
			How does photosynthesis capture energy?
		2.4 From Species to Ecosystems
			Organisms occur in populations, communities, and ecosystems
			Food chains, food webs, and trophic levels define species relationships
		Active Learning Food Webs
		Key Concepts How do energy and matter move through systems?
		Exploring Science Who Cares About Krill?
			Ecological pyramids describe trophic levels
		2.5 Biogeochemical Cycles and Life Processes
			The hydrologic cycle
			The carbon cycle
			The nitrogen cycle
			Phosphorus eventually washes to the sea
			The sulfur cycle
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis A Closer Look at Nitrogen Cycling
3 Evolution, Species Interactions, and Biological Communities
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Natural Selection and the Galápagos Finches
		3.1 Evolution Leads to Diversity
			Natural selection and adaptation modify species
			Limiting factors influence species distributions
			A niche is a species’ role and environment
			Speciation leads to species diversity
			Taxonomy describes relationships among species
		Key Concepts Where do species come from?
		3.2 Species Interactions
			Competition leads to resource allocation
			Predation affects species relationships
			Predation leads to adaptation
			Symbiosis involves cooperation
		Exploring Science Say Hello to Your 90 Trillion Little Friends
			Keystone species play critical roles
		3.3 Population Growth
			Growth without limits is exponential
			Carrying capacity limits growth
			Environmental limits lead to logistic growth
			Species respond to limits differently: r- and K-selected species
		Active Learning Effect of K on Population Growth Rate (rN)
		3.4 Community Diversity
			Diversity and abundance
			Patterns produce community structure
		What Can You Do? Working Locally for Ecological Diversity
			Resilience seems related to complexity
		3.5 Communities Are Dynamic and Change over Time
			Are communities organismal or individualistic?
			Succession describes community change
			Some communities depend on disturbance
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Competitive Exclusion
4 Human Populations
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Family Planning in Thailand: A Success Story
		4.1 Past and Current Population Growth Are Very Different
			Human populations grew slowly until recently
		Active Learning Population Doubling Time
			Does environment or culture control human population growth?
			Technology increases carrying capacity for humans
			Population can push economic growth
		4.2 Many Factors Determine Population Growth
			How many of us are there?
		Key Concepts How big is your footprint?
			Fertility has declined in recent decades
			Mortality offsets births
			Life expectancy is rising worldwide
		What Do You Think? China’s One-Child Policy
			Living longer has profound social implications
		4.3 Fertility Is Influenced by Culture
			People want children for many reasons
			Education and income affect the desire for children
		4.4 The Demographic Transition
			Economic and social conditions change mortality and births
			Two ways to complete the demographic transition
			Improving women’s lives helps reduce birth rates
			Family planning gives us choices
		4.5 What Kind of Future Are We Creating Now?
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Population Change over Time
5 Biomes and Biodiversity
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Ecosystems in Transition
		5.1 Terrestrial Biomes
			Tropical moist forests are warm and wet year-round
			Tropical seasonal forests have annual dry seasons
		Active Learning Comparing Biome Climates
			Tropical savannas and grasslands are dry most of the year
			Deserts are hot or cold, but always dry
			Temperate grasslands have rich soils
			Temperate scrublands have summer drought
			Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous
			Boreal forests lie north of the temperate zone
			Tundra can freeze in any month
		5.2 Marine Environments
		Active Learning Examining Climate Graphs
			Open ocean communities vary from surface to hadal zone
			Tidal shores support rich, diverse communities
		5.3 Freshwater Ecosystems
			Lakes have extensive open water
			Wetlands are shallow and productive
			Streams and rivers are open systems
		5.4 Biodiversity
			Increasingly we identify species by genetic similarity
			Biodiversity hot spots are rich and threatened
			Biodiversity provides food and medicines
		5.5 What Threatens Biodiversity?
			HIPPO summarizes human impacts
			Habitat destruction is usually the main threat
		Key Concepts What is biodiversity worth?
			Fragmentation reduces habitat to small, isolated areas
			Invasive species are a growing threat
		What Can You Do? You Can Help Preserve Biodiversity
			Pollution poses many types of risk
			Population growth consumes space, resources
			Overharvesting depletes or eliminates species
		Exploring Science Restoring Coral Reefs
		5.6 Biodiversity Protection
			Hunting and fishing laws protect useful species
			The Endangered Species Act protects habitat and species
			Recovery plans aim to rebuild populations
			Landowner collaboration is key
			The ESA has seen successes and controversies
			Many countries have species protection laws
			Habitat protection may be better than individual species protection
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Confidence Limits in the Breeding Bird Survey
6 Environmental Conservation: Forests, Grasslands, Parks, and Nature Preserves
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Palm Oil and Endangered Species
		6.1 World Forests
			Boreal and tropical forests are most abundant
		Active Learning Calculating Forest Area
			Forests provide essential products
			Tropical forests are being cleared rapidly
		Exploring Science How Can We Know About Forest Loss?
			Saving forests stabilizes our climate
			REDD schemes can pay for ecosystem services
			Temperate forests also are at risk
		Key Concepts Save a tree, save the climate?
		What Can You Do? Lowering Your Forest Impacts
			Fire management is a growing cost
			Ecosystem management is part of forest management
		6.2 Grasslands
			Grazing can be sustainable or damaging
			Overgrazing threatens many rangelands
			Ranchers are experimenting with new methods
		6.3 Parks and Preserves
			Many countries have created nature preserves
			Not all preserves are preserved
		What Do You Think? Wildlife or Oil?
			Marine ecosystems need greater protection
			Conservation and economic development can work together
			Native people can play important roles in nature protection
		What Can You Do? Being a Responsible Ecotourist
			Citizenship Science Monuments Under Attack
			Species survival can depend on preserve size and shape
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Detecting Edge Effects
7 Food and Agriculture
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study A New Pesticide Cocktail
		7.1 Global Trends in Food and Hunger
			Food security is unevenly distributed
			Famines have political and social roots
		Active Learning Mapping Poverty and Plenty
		7.2 How Much Food Do We Need?
			A healthy diet includes the right nutrients
			Overeating is a growing world problem
			More production doesn’t necessarily reduce hunger
			Biofuels have boosted commodity prices
			Do we have enough farmland?
		7.3 What Do We Eat?
			Rising meat production is a sign of wealth
			Seafood, both wild and farmed, depends on wild-source inputs
			Biohazards arise in industrial production
		7.4 Living Soil Is a Precious Resource
			What is soil?
		Active Learning Where in the World Did You Eat Today?
			Healthy soil fauna can determine soil fertility
			Your food comes mostly from the A horizon
			How do we use and abuse soil?
			Water is the leading cause of soil erosion
			Wind is a close second in erosion
		7.5 Agricultural Inputs
			High yields usually require irrigation
		Key Concepts How can we feed the world?
			Fertilizers boost production
			Modern agriculture runs on oil
			Pesticide use continues to rise
		7.6 How Have We Managed to Feed Billions?
			The Green Revolution has increased yields
			Genetic engineering has benefits and costs
			Most GMOs are engineered for pesticide production or pesticide tolerance
			Is genetic engineering safe?
		7.7 Sustainable Farming Strategies
			Soil conservation is essential
			Groundcover, reduced tilling protect soil
			Low-input, sustainable agriculture can benefit people and the environment
			Consumer choices benefit local farm economies
		What Do You Think? Shade-Grown Coffee and Cocoa
			You can eat low on the food chain
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Mapping Your Food Supply
8 Environmental Health and Toxicology
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study A Toxic Flood
		8.1 Environmental Health
			The global disease burden is changing
			Emergent and infectious diseases still kill millions of people
			Conservation medicine combines ecology and health care
			Resistance to antibiotics and pesticides is increasing
		What Can You Do? Tips for Staying Healthy
		8.2 Toxicology
			How do toxics affect us?
			Is your shampoo making you fat?
		Key Concepts What toxins and hazards are present in your home?
		8.3 Movement, Distribution, and Fate of Toxins
			Solubility and mobility determine when and where chemicals move
			Exposure and susceptibility determine how we respond
			Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase chemical concentrations
			Persistence makes some materials a greater threat
			Chemical interactions can increase toxicity
		8.4 Toxicity and Risk Assessment
			We usually test toxic effects on lab animals
			There is a wide range of toxicity
			Acute versus chronic doses and effects
		Active Learning Assessing Toxins
			Detectable levels aren’t always dangerous
			Low doses can have variable effects
			Our perception of risks isn’t always rational
		Exploring Science The Epigenome
			How much risk is acceptable?
		Active Learning Calculating Probabilities
		8.5 Establishing Health Policy
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis How Do We Evaluate Risk and Fear?
9 Climate
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Shrinking Florida
		9.1 What Is the Atmosphere?
			The atmosphere captures energy selectively
			Evaporated water stores and redistributes heat
			Ocean currents also redistribute heat
		9.2 Climate Changes Over Time
			Ice cores tell us about climate history
			What causes natural climatic swings?
			El Niño/Southern Oscillation is one of many regional cycles
		9.3 How Do We Know the Climate Is Changing Faster Than Usual?
			Scientific consensus is clear
		Active Learning Can you explain key evidence on climate change?
			Rising heat waves, sea level, and storms are expected
			The main greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4, and N2O
			We greatly underestimate methane emissions
			What does 2° look like?
			Ice loss produces positive feedbacks
		Key Concepts Climate change in a nutshell: How does it work?
		Exploring Science How Do We Know That Climate Change Is Human-Caused?
			Climate change will cost far more than climate protection
			Why are there disputes over climate evidence?
		9.4 Envisioning Solutions
			The Paris Accord establishes new goals
			We have many drawdown options right now
			Wind, water, and solar could meet all our needs
		What Do You Think? Unburnable Carbon
		What Can You Do? Climate Action
			Local initiatives are everywhere
			States are leading the way
			Carbon capture saves CO2 but is expensive
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Examining the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5)
10 Air Pollution
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Delhi’s Air Quality Crisis
		10.1 Air Pollution and Health
			The Clean Air Act regulates major pollutants
			Conventional pollutants are abundant and serious
		Active Learning Compare Sources of Pollutants
			Hazardous air pollutants can cause cancer and nerve damage
			Mercury is a key neurotoxin
			Indoor air can be worse than outdoor air
		10.2 Air Pollution and Climate
			Air pollutants travel the globe
			CO2 and halogens are key greenhouse gases
			The Supreme Court has charged the EPA with controlling greenhouse gases
			Exploring Science Black Carbon
			CFCs also destroy ozone in the stratosphere
			CFC control has had remarkable success
		10.3 Environmental and Health Effects
			Acid deposition results from SO4 and NOx
			Urban areas endure inversions and heat islands
			Smog and haze reduce visibility
		10.4 Air Pollution Control
			The best strategy is reducing production
			Clean air legislation has been controversial but extremely successful
			Trading pollution credits is one approach
		10.5 The Ongoing Challenge
			Pollution persists in developing areas
			Change is possible
		Key Concepts Can we afford clean air?
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis How Polluted Is Your Hometown?
11 Water: Resources and Pollution
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study A Water State of Emergency
		11.1 Water Resources
			How does the hydrologic cycle redistribute water?
			Major water compartments vary in residence time
			Groundwater storage is vast and cycles slowly
			Surface water and atmospheric moisture cycle quickly
		Active Learning Mapping the Water-Rich and Water-Poor Countries
		11.2 How Much Water Do We Use?
			We export “virtual water”
			Some products are thirstier than others
			Industrial uses include energy production
			Domestic water supplies protect health
		11.3 Dealing with Water Scarcity
			Drought, climate, and water shortages
		What Do You Think? Water and Power
			Groundwater supplies are being depleted
			Diversion projects redistribute water
			Questions of justice often surround dam projects
			Would you fight for water?
			Land and water conservation protect resources
			Everyone can help conserve water
		What Can You Do? Saving Water and Prevenvting Pollution
			Communities are starting to recycle water
		11.4 Water Pollutants
			Pollution includes point sources and nonpoint sources
			Biological pollution includes pathogens and waste
			Nutrients cause eutrophication
			Inorganic pollutants include metals, salts, and acids
		Exploring Science Inexpensive Water Purification
			Organic chemicals include pesticides and industrial substances
			Is bottled water safer?
			Sediment is one of our most abundant pollutants
		11.5 Persistent Challenges
			Developing countries often have serious water pollution
			Groundwater is especially hard to clean up
			Ocean pollution has few controls
		11.6 Water Treatment and Remediation
			Impaired water can be restored
			Nonpoint sources require prevention
			How do we treat municipal waste?
			Municipal treatment has three levels of quality
			Natural wastewater treatment can be an answer
			Remediation can involve containment, extraction, or biological treatment
		Key Concepts Could natural systems treat our wastewater?
		11.7 Legal Protections for Water
			The Clean Water Act was ambitious, popular, and largely successful
			The CWA helped fund infrastructure
			The CWA established permitting systems
			The CWA has made real but incomplete progress
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Graphing Global Water Stress and Scarcity
12 Environmental Geology and Earth Resources
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Salmon or Copper?
		12.1 Earth Processes Shape Our Resources
			Earth is a dynamic planet
			Tectonic processes reshape continents and cause earthquakes
		12.2 Minerals and Rocks
			The rock cycle creates and recycles rocks
			Weathering and sedimentation
			Economic Geology and Mineralogy
			Metals are essential to our economy
			Nonmetal mineral resources include gravel, clay, glass, and salts
			Currently, the earth provides almost all our fuel
		12.3 Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction
		Active Learning What Geologic Resources Are You Using Right Now?
		Key Concepts Where does your cell phone come from?
			Mining and drilling can degrade water quality
		Exploring Science Induced Seismicity
			Surface mining destroys landscapes
			Processing contaminates air, water, and soil
			Recycling saves energy as well as materials
			New materials can replace mined resources
		12.4 Geologic Hazards
			Earthquakes are frequent and deadly hazards
			Volcanoes eject deadly gases and ash
			Floods are part of a river’s land-shaping processes
			Flood control
			Mass wasting includes slides and slumps
			Erosion destroys fields and undermines buildings
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Exploring Recent Earthquakes
13 Energy
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Greening Gotham: Can New York Reach an 80 by 50 Goal?
		13.1 Energy Resources
			The future of energy is not the past
			We measure energy in units such as J and W
			How much energy do we use?
		13.2 Fossil Fuels
			Coal resources are greater than we can use
			Coal use is declining in the United States
			When will we run out of oil?
			Extreme oil and tar sands extend our supplies
			Access to markets is a key challenge
			Natural gas is growing in importance
			Hydraulic fracturing opens up tight gas resources
		13.3 Nuclear Power and Hydropower
			How do nuclear reactors work?
		What Do You Think? Twilight for Nuclear Power?
			We lack safe storage for radioactive waste
			Moving water is one of our oldest power sources
			Large dams have large impacts
		13.4 Energy Efficiency and Conservation
		What Can You Do? Steps to Save Energy and Money
			Costs can depend on how you calculate them
		Active Learning Driving Down Gas Costs
			Tight houses save money
			Passive housing is becoming standard in some areas
			Cogeneration makes electricity from waste heat
		13.5 Wind and Solar Energy
			Wind could meet all our energy needs
			Wind power provides local control of energy
			Solar thermal systems collect usable heat
			CSP makes electricity from heat
			Photovoltaic cells generate electricity directly
		Key Concepts How can we transition to alternative energy?
		13.6 Biomass and Geothermal Energy
			Ethanol has been the main U.S. focus
			Cellulosic ethanol remains mostly uneconomical
			Methane from biomass is efficient and clean
			Heat pumps provide efficient cooling and heating
		13.7 What Does an Energy Transition Look Like?
			The grid will need improvement
			Storage options are changing rapidly
			Fuel cells release electricity from chemical bonding
			Wind, water, and solar are good answers
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Personal Energy Use
14 Solid and Hazardous Waste
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Plastic Seas
		14.1 What Waste Do We Produce?
			The waste stream is everything we throw away
		14.2 Waste Disposal Methods
			Open dumps release hazardous substances into the air and water
			Ocean dumping is mostly uncontrolled
			Landfills receive most of our waste
		Active Learning Life-Cycle Analysis
			We often export waste to countries ill-equipped to handle it
			Incineration produces energy from trash
		What Do You Think? Who Will Take Our Waste?
		14.3 Shrinking the Waste Stream
			Recycling saves money, energy, and space
		Key Concepts Garbage: Liability or resource?
			Composting recycles organic waste
			Reuse is even better than recycling
			Reducing waste is the cheapest option
		What Can You Do? Reducing Waste
		14.4 Hazardous and Toxic Wastes
			Hazardous waste includes many dangerous substances
		Active Learning A Personal Hazardous Waste Inventory
			Federal legislation regulates hazardous waste
			Superfund sites are listed for federally funded cleanup
			Brownfields present both liability and opportunity
			Hazardous waste must be processed or stored permanently
		Exploring Science Bioremediation
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis How Much Waste Do You Produce, and How Much Do You Know How to Manage?
15 Economics and Urbanization
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Using Economics to Fight Climate Change
		15.1 Cities Are Places of Crisis and Opportunity
			Large cities are expanding rapidly
			Immigration is driven by push and pull factors
			Congestion, pollution, and water shortages plague many cities
			Many cities lack sufficient housing
		15.2 Urban Planning
			Transportation is crucial in city development
		Key Concepts What makes a city green?
			Rebuilding cities
			We can make our cities more livable
			Sustainable urbanism incorporates smart growth
		15.3 Economics and Resource Management
			Our definitions of resources influence how we use them
			Ecological economics incorporates principles of ecology
			Scarcity can lead to innovation
			Communal property resources are a classic problem in economics
		15.4 Natural Resource Accounting
			Exploring Science What’s the Value of Nature?
		Active Learning Costs and Benefits
			Internalizing external costs
			New approaches measure real progress
		What Can You Do? Personally Responsible Consumerism
		15.5 Trade, Development, and Jobs
			Microlending helps the poorest of the poor
			Market mechanisms can reduce pollution
		Active Learning Try Your Hand at Microlending
			Green business and green design
		Science and Citizenship Green Energy Jobs Versus Fossil Fuels
			Green business creates jobs
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Plotting Trends in Urbanization and Economic Indicators
16 Environmental Policy and Sustainability
	LEARNING OUTCOMES
		Case Study Fossil Fuel Divestment
		16.1 Environmental Policy and Science
			What drives policymaking?
			Policy creation is ongoing and cyclic
			Are we better safe than sorry?
		16.2 Major Environmental Laws
		Active Learning Environment, Science, and Policy in Your Community
			NEPA (1969) establishes public oversight
			The Clean Air Act (1970) regulates air emissions
			The Clean Water Act (1972) protects surface water
			The Endangered Species Act (1973) protects wildlife
			The Superfund Act (1980) addresses hazardous sites
		16.3 How Are Policies Implemented?
			The legislative branch establishes statutes (laws)
			The judicial branch resolves legal disputes
		Key Concepts How does the Clean Water Act benefit you?
			The executive branch oversees administrative rules
			How much government do we want?
		16.4 International Policies
			Major international agreements
			Enforcement often relies on national pride
		16.5 What Can Students Do?
			Working together gives you influence, and it’s fun
			New groups and approaches are emerging
			Find your own niche
		What Can You Do? Actions to Influence Environmental Policy
			Environmental literacy integrates science and policy
			Colleges and universities are powerful catalysts for change
		Science and Citizenship Water Protectors at Standing Rock
			Audits help reduce resource consumption
			Campus rankings motivate progress
			How much is enough?
		16.6 The Challenges of Sustainable Development
			Sustainable Development Goals aim to improve conditions for all
		Conclusion
		Data Analysis Campus Environmental Audit
APPENDIX 1 Vegetation
APPENDIX 2 World Population Density
APPENDIX 3 Temperature Regions and Ocean Currents
Glossary
Index