Principles of Corporate Finance

Table of Contents......Page 0
Front Matter......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 4
1. Introductory Review......Page 6
2. Control System Fundamentals......Page 20
Process Reaction Curve......Page 23
Process Transfer Function......Page 28
On-Off Control Action......Page 30
Proportional Control......Page 31
Offset......Page 34
Automatic Reset-Proportional Plus Integral Controllers......Page 35
Integral Saturation......Page 37
Time- and Current-Proportioning Controllers......Page 38
Process Control Characteristics and Controller Selection......Page 41
Controller Selection......Page 42
Single-Capacity Processes......Page 43
Multicapacity Processes......Page 44
Digital Control......Page 49
State-Space Representation......Page 50
Transfer-Operator Representation......Page 51
Feedback Control......Page 52
Robustness......Page 53
Feedforward Control......Page 56
Multiple-Loop Control......Page 57
Linear-Quadratic Design......Page 59
Minimum-Time Switching Control......Page 60
Minimum-Variance Design......Page 61
Algebraic Proportional Plus Integral Plus Derivative Design......Page 63
Antialias Filtering......Page 66
Adaptive Control......Page 67
Pattern Recognition and Expert Systems, Performance-Feedback Adaptor......Page 69
Discrete-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation......Page 71
Continuous-Model Identification, Open-Loop Adaptation......Page 73
Least-Squares Method, Batch Parameter Identification......Page 74
References......Page 75
Introduction......Page 76
Structure of Traditional Process Control......Page 78
Fixed-Point Format......Page 80
Fixed-Point Scaling......Page 81
Range and Error in Fixed-Point Arithmetic......Page 82
Fixed-Point Multiplication and Division......Page 83
Digital Integration for Control......Page 84
Floating-Point Format......Page 85
Generalized Multiple-Precision Floating-Point......Page 86
Specification of Fixed-Point Algorithms......Page 87
Operational Issues......Page 88
Output Limiting: External Feedback......Page 90
External Feedback in Nonlinear Compensators......Page 92
Lead/Lag Calculation......Page 93
PID Controller Calculation......Page 94
Dead-Time Calculation......Page 96
Quantization and Saturation Effects......Page 97
Identification and Matrix-Oriented Issues......Page 98
Software and Application Issues......Page 100
References......Page 101
Safety in Instrumentation and Control Systems......Page 102
Classifying a Hazardous Location......Page 103
Techniques Used to Reduce Explosion Hazards......Page 105
Explosionproof Housings......Page 106
Pressurization Systems......Page 107
Intrinsic Safety......Page 109
Early Developments......Page 110
Mechanical and Electrical Isolation......Page 111
Current and Voltage Limiting......Page 112
Analytical Method for Circuit Design......Page 113
Simplifying Assumptions......Page 114
Testing of Special Cases......Page 115
General Principles......Page 116
Ignition by Optical Sources......Page 118
Bibliography......Page 119
 3. Controllers......Page 121
Introduction......Page 126
Evolution of the Distributed Control System......Page 127
Sampled Data Interval Induced Deadtime......Page 130
Loop Commissioning: Initialization Sequences and Bumpless-Balanceless Transfer......Page 134
Transition from Automatic Control to Production Management......Page 137
Fieldbus and Intelligent Devices......Page 141
Internet Technology......Page 143
Object-Oriented Software Components and Containers......Page 144
Complete and Detailed Functional Specification and System Requirements Definitions......Page 145
System Evaluation: Budget, Schedule, and Risk Assessment......Page 149
Conclusions......Page 150
Bibliography......Page 151
Programmable Controllers Defined......Page 152
PC-Based Control......Page 153
Single-Board Controllers......Page 154
Networking Choices......Page 155
Control Network Example......Page 156
Device Network Example......Page 157
Chassis-Based vs. Distributed I/O......Page 158
Software Choices......Page 159
Sequential Function Charts (SFCs)......Page 161
Structured Text......Page 163
Software Standards......Page 164
Controller Selection......Page 166
Speed......Page 167
The Application......Page 168
Safety/Data Integrity......Page 169
Stand-Alone Controllers......Page 170
Single- and Dual-Loop Controllers......Page 173
Reference......Page 177
Hydraulic Controllers......Page 178
Elements of Hydraulic Controllers......Page 179
Jet Pipe Valve......Page 180
Two-Stage Valves......Page 182
Proportional Valves......Page 184
Fire-Resistant Fluids......Page 185
Power Considerations......Page 186
Applications......Page 187
Size-Selection Procedures......Page 188
Relative Advantages and Limitations......Page 190
Batch Mode......Page 191
Batching Nomenclature......Page 193
Defining and Outlining the Batch Process......Page 195
System Selection Factors......Page 198
References......Page 205
Typical Blend Configuration......Page 206
Liquid or Powder Blending......Page 207
Blend Setup......Page 208
Automatic Rate Control......Page 211
Distributed Numerical Control and Networking......Page 212
Basic DNC Configuration......Page 213
Advantages of Basic DNC System......Page 214
DNC Operating Systems......Page 216
Personal Computer DNC Systems......Page 217
UNIX-Based Network......Page 219
DNC System Trends Controllers......Page 220
Computers and Controls......Page 221
Initial Considerations of Computers in Control Systems......Page 222
Basic PC......Page 225
PC Speed......Page 226
Interfacing the PC......Page 227
PC Software......Page 228
Software Control Techniques......Page 230
Progressive Enhancement of the PC......Page 231
Terminology......Page 232
The History of MMS......Page 255
The MMS Standard......Page 256
Benefits of MMS......Page 257
Justifying MMS......Page 258
Client/Server Relationship......Page 259
MMS Device and Object Modeling......Page 261
MMS Objects......Page 262
The VMD Execution Model......Page 263
Domains......Page 264
Program Invocations......Page 265
Batch Controller Example......Page 266
Variable-Access Services......Page 270
MMS Variables......Page 267
Event Management Model......Page 271
Event Condition Object......Page 272
Event Actions......Page 273
Event Enrollments......Page 274
Semaphore Management Model......Page 276
Pool Semaphores......Page 277
Semaphore Entry......Page 278
Semaphore Services......Page 279
Journal Objects......Page 280
Context Management......Page 281
Context Management Services......Page 282
Introduction......Page 283
Hardware......Page 286
Software......Page 287
Characteristics of a Field-Based System......Page 289
Field-Based System Results......Page 291
References......Page 292
4. Process Variables-Field Instrumentation......Page 293
Temperature Defined......Page 300
Temperature Scale Conversion......Page 301
Thermocouple Principles......Page 304
Thermocouple Signal Conditioning......Page 305
Thermocouple Fabrication and Protection......Page 306
Thermocouple Installation......Page 309
Thermocouple Circuit Flexibility......Page 310
Resistance-Temperature Detectors......Page 312
Principles of Resistance Thermometry......Page 313
Platinum RTDs......Page 314
RTD Circuitry......Page 316
Thermocouple and RTD Transmitters......Page 318
Evolution of Temperature Transmitters......Page 319
Thermistors......Page 320
Thermistor Applications......Page 324
IR Thermometry Principles......Page 326
Measuring Temperatures of Nonblackbodies......Page 329
Classes of IR Thermometers......Page 333
Filled-System Thermometers......Page 336
Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensor......Page 338
Reference......Page 339
Fluid Pressure Systems......Page 340
Manometers......Page 341
Elastic-Element Mechanical Pressure Gages......Page 345
Force or Pressure Sensors, Transducers and Transmitters......Page 346
Strain-Gage Transducers......Page 347
Capacitive Pressure Transducers......Page 361
Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers......Page 365
Resonant-Wire Pressure Transducers......Page 367
Reluctive Elements......Page 369
Vacuum Measurement......Page 370
Pirani or Thermocouple Vacuum Gage......Page 372
Hot-Filament Ionization Vacuum Gage......Page 374
Cold-Cathode Ionization Vacuum Gage......Page 375
Spinning-Rotor Friction Vacuum Gage......Page 377
Partial-Pressure Analyzers (Vacuum)......Page 378
Smart Pressure Transmitters......Page 379
Application of Chemical Seals......Page 380
Chemical Seal Hardware......Page 384
Response Time......Page 385
Restriction Flow Measurement with Primary Devices and Differential Pressure Transmitters......Page 387
Errors in Orifice Plate System......Page 394
Orifice Application, Device Selection......Page 396
Pitot Tube Application......Page 397
Basic Flow Metering Considerations......Page 398
Differential-Pressure Flowmeters......Page 400
Variable-Area Flowmeters......Page 402
Measuring Principle......Page 406
Construction......Page 407
Application Areas......Page 408
Magmeter Installation Tips and Suggestions......Page 409
Alternating (ac) Field System......Page 410
Pulsed Direct (dc) Field Systems......Page 411
The Inductive Flowmeter for Special Measurement Problems......Page 413
Reynolds Numbers......Page 414
Turbine Flowmeter Construction......Page 415
Oscillatory Flowmeters......Page 417
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters......Page 418
Vortex Meter Advantages......Page 419
Process Variables-Field Instrumentation......Page 420
Fluidic Operating Principle......Page 422
Inferential Mass Flow Measurement (Microprocessor-Based Volumetric Flowmeters)......Page 423
Vortex Flowmeter Liquid Mass......Page 424
Differential Pressure Meter Gas Mass......Page 425
Glossary......Page 426
Principle of Operation......Page 427
Temperature Measurement......Page 429
Thermal Mass Flowmeters......Page 431
Flow Application Matrix......Page 432
Doppler-Effect (Frequency-Shift) Flowmeters......Page 434
Transit-Time Ultrasonic Flowmeters......Page 436
Positive-Displacement Flowmeters......Page 437
Oscillating-Piston Meter......Page 438
Oval-Shaped Gear Flowmeters......Page 440
Other Positive-Displacement Meters......Page 441
Parshall Flumes......Page 442
Open-Flow Nozzle (Kennison)......Page 443
Bulk-Solids Flow Measurement......Page 444
Belt-Conveyor Weighers......Page 445
Types of Level Measurement Systems......Page 446
General Considerations in Level Measurement Technology Selection......Page 448
Ambient Temperature......Page 449
Vapor, Mist and Dust......Page 450
Material Buildup or Stickiness......Page 451
Electromechanical Level Measurement and Detection Systems......Page 452
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids by Use of Displacers......Page 453
Level Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of a Plumb Bob......Page 454
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Conductivity......Page 455
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Vibrating Forks Resonance or Rod Attenuation......Page 456
Level Detection of Solids by Use of  Vibrating Fork or Rod Attenuation......Page 457
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Bubblers......Page 459
Level Measurement by Use of Pressure Transmitters......Page 460
Electronic DP Measurement......Page 464
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Ultrasonic......Page 466
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Capacitance......Page 469
Fully and Partially Insulated Probes......Page 470
Capacitance Probes and Buildup......Page 471
Installation and Application Considerations......Page 472
Point Level Measurement......Page 473
Selection Criteria......Page 474
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Time-Domain Reflectometry......Page 475
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Magnetostrictive......Page 476
Level Detection and Measurement of Liquids and Solids by Use of Radiometric......Page 477
Level Measurement of Liquids by Use of Optics......Page 479
Level Detection of Liquids by Use of Ultrasonic Tank Resonance......Page 480
Industrial Scales......Page 482
Fluid Density......Page 483
Humidity and Moisture Systems......Page 488
Humidity Fundamentals......Page 489
Other Important Terminology......Page 490
Percent Relative Humidity......Page 491
Dew Point Hygrometry......Page 492
Direct Measurements Versus Sample Systems......Page 494
Thermometry Based......Page 500
Capacitance......Page 511
Resistance......Page 515
Optical Property Based......Page 516
Mechanical Effect Based......Page 517
Chemical Reaction Based......Page 520
Application Guide for Gases......Page 525
Aluminum Oxide......Page 527
Centrifugal......Page 528
General Observations......Page 529
Calibration......Page 530
Applications......Page 531
Reference......Page 541
5. Geometric and Motion Sensors......Page 542
Dimensional Standards......Page 546
Interferometer......Page 547
Gage Blocks......Page 548
Clinometer......Page 550
Protractor......Page 551
Sine Bar......Page 552
Miniature Positioning Tables (Stages)......Page 553
Positioning Table Geometry......Page 554
Machine Conditions and Requirements......Page 555
Rotary Motion......Page 560
Rotary Incremental Optical Encoders......Page 561
Accuracy of Rotary Incremental Encoder......Page 564
Rotary Absolute Optical Encoders......Page 565
Advantages of Absolute Encoders......Page 567
Resolvers......Page 568
Linear Encoders......Page 569
Other Linear Position Transducers......Page 570
Linear Variable Differential Transformers......Page 573
Linear Potentiometers......Page 577
Magnetostrictive Linear Position Sensors......Page 579
Sidebar......Page 584
Magnetic Properties Glossary......Page 585
Nuclear Radiation Thickness Gages......Page 586
Ultrasonic Thickness Gages......Page 588
Surface Texture Measurement......Page 589
Statistical Quality Control......Page 591
SQC Glossary of Terms......Page 592
System Approach to SQC......Page 600
SQC in the Process Industries......Page 601
Production Gaging Systems......Page 603
Electromechanical Limit Switches......Page 606
Inductive Proximity Sensors......Page 607
Wiegand-Effect Switches......Page 610
Magnetically Actuated Dry-Reed Switches......Page 611
Capacitive Proximity Sensors......Page 613
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors......Page 615
Photoelectric Proximity Sensors......Page 618
Machine Vision......Page 625
Elements of Pattern Recognition......Page 626
MV Sensors......Page 627
MV Image Processing......Page 628
MV Applications......Page 629
Discrete-Piece Identification-Bar Coding......Page 630
Flat Web (Sheet) Measurements......Page 633
Flat Web (Sheet) Control......Page 634
Definition of Terms......Page 637
Tachometers......Page 639
DC Tachometers......Page 640
AC Tachometers......Page 641
Magnetic Speed Sensors......Page 643
Stroboscopic Tachometers......Page 646
Eddy-Current Tachometers......Page 648
Air and Gas Velocity Measurement......Page 649
Revolving-Vane Anemometers......Page 650
Constant-Temperature Thermal Anemometers......Page 651
Vibration Measurements......Page 652
Design Considerations......Page 653
Piezoelectric Accelerometers......Page 654
Variable Capacitive......Page 656
Conditioning Piezoresistive Transducers......Page 657
Environmental Effects......Page 658
Noncontact (Relative-Motion) Sensors......Page 659
Optical Vibrometers......Page 660
6. Real-Time Analytical Composition Measurements for Input to Process Control......Page 661
Changing Times and Technology......Page 666
Avoid Common Mistakes......Page 667
Trends in Analytical Instrumentation......Page 668
Approaches to Procuring Analytical Services......Page 669
Thermal Conductivity (and Gas Density)......Page 670
Electrical Conductivity......Page 673
Electrical Conductivity Measurement......Page 674
Temperature Compensation......Page 676
Sensor Selection and Installation......Page 679
Electrical Resistance......Page 680
Piezoelectric Crystal (H2O)......Page 681
pH Measurement: Theory and Reality......Page 683
Reference Electrode......Page 690
Cleaning Methods......Page 692
Problems and Causes......Page 695
Sources of pH Measurement Errors and Failures......Page 699
Selection......Page 700
Best Practices for pH Measurement Selection......Page 705
Installation......Page 707
Best Practices for pH Measurement Installation......Page 709
Maintenance......Page 710
Best Practices for pH Maintenance......Page 712
Key Points......Page 713
Rules of Thumb......Page 714
Turbidity......Page 715
Size/Shape......Page 716
Concentration......Page 717
90 Degree Scatter......Page 718
Surface Scatter......Page 719
Applications......Page 720
Specification......Page 722
Design......Page 723
Maintenance......Page 724
Refractive Index......Page 725
Critical Angle Measurement......Page 726
Specification......Page 727
Applications......Page 728
Installation Guidelines......Page 729
Introduction......Page 730
Beer's Law-Concentration Versus Absorption......Page 731
UV/VIS Process Analyzers......Page 733
Sampling System Considerations for UV/VIS Analyzers......Page 735
X-RAY Fluorescence and Absorption......Page 738
Chemilluminescence......Page 739
Flame......Page 740
Thermionic......Page 741
Electron Capture......Page 742
Sample Extraction, Conditioning and Preparation for On-Line Analysis (Continuous Sample Flow Versus Discrete Sampling)......Page 743
Sampling System Functions......Page 744
Principles of Sample Handling......Page 745
Techniques of Sample Transfer......Page 748
Fundamentals of Sample Preparation......Page 749
Remote Discrete Sampling/Flow Injection/Multidimensional Sample Preparation......Page 750
Fast GC......Page 753
Multidimensional Sample Manipulation Techniques......Page 754
References......Page 759
Appendix A: Linear Column Component Separation Parameters......Page 762
Sample System and Analyzer Control......Page 764
Digital Versus Analog Sensors......Page 766
DSP Provides Detectors with Greater Precision at High Sensitivity......Page 767
The Many Advantages of DSP......Page 768
Information Display, Storage and Communication......Page 769
Example of Current System......Page 770
Housings and Ovens......Page 771
Calibration and Validation......Page 772
Permeation Devices......Page 773
Internal Standards......Page 774
Decisions to Change Analyzer Calibration Based on Statistical Quality-Control Charts......Page 775
Finding Probable Cause and Taking Action......Page 776
Statistical Process Control Utilizing Control Charts......Page 778
Oxygen Analyzer on a Furnace Stack Gas......Page 782
Propionic Acid in Acetic Acid......Page 783
Acrolein in Acrylonitrile......Page 784
Internal Reference Introduction for Performance Verification and Diagnostics......Page 785
References......Page 787
Internal Injection......Page 788
Water (H2O)......Page 790
Apparatus......Page 791
Procedures......Page 792
Stack Continuus Emission Monitoring Systems (CEMS)......Page 795
Operating Procedure......Page 796
Appendix II......Page 799
Air Oxidation of Hydrocarbons......Page 801
Air/Ammoxidation of Hydrocarbons......Page 802
Wide Boiling Range Liquid-Olefins and Alcohols......Page 804
Waste-Water Monitoring......Page 809
Lethal Service on Hydrogen Cyanide......Page 810
Sulfuric Acid Alkylation Process Control......Page 811
Waste-Gas Analysis/Hydrgen Generation Control......Page 812
Gasoline Blending......Page 814
7. Control Communications......Page 815
Data Signal Handling in Computerized Systems......Page 816
Signal Types......Page 817
Field Signals and Transducers......Page 818
Thermocouples......Page 820
Solid-State Temperature Sensors......Page 821
Sampled-Data Systems......Page 822
Analog-to-Digital Converters......Page 823
Amplifiers......Page 825
Single-Ended Versus Differential Signals......Page 826
Sample/Hold System......Page 827
Multiplexers......Page 828
Filtering......Page 829
Analog Signal Scaling......Page 831
Resistance Signals......Page 832
Current Conversion......Page 835
Surge Protection......Page 836
Digital-to-Analog Converters......Page 837
Pulse and Frequency Inputs and Outputs......Page 838
Digital Isolation......Page 839
Motor Control......Page 840
Noise and Wiring in Data Signal Handling......Page 841
Grounding and Shielding Principles......Page 843
Cable Types......Page 844
Troubleshooting Guide for Noise......Page 845
Cable-Length Guidelines......Page 846
Early Networking Concepts......Page 848
Early Data Highways......Page 850
Network Protocols......Page 852
Token Bus Protocol (IEEE 802.4)......Page 854
Communication Models and Layers......Page 855
Manufacturing Automation Protocol......Page 857
Open Systems......Page 858
Fieldbus......Page 859
Fiber-Optic Cables and Networks......Page 860
Characteristics of Optical Fibers and Cables......Page 861
Light Sources and Detectors......Page 864
8. Operator Interface......Page 865
Operator Interface - Design Rationale......Page 866
Habit Patterns......Page 867
Operator-Interface Geometry......Page 868
Alphanumeric Displays......Page 869
Keyboards......Page 872
Local Environment......Page 874
Process Control Tasks......Page 875
GOMS and NGOMSL......Page 876
Conclusions......Page 877
Pattern Recognition......Page 878
Spatial Representations......Page 879
Using a Predictor......Page 880
Impact of Automation......Page 881
Overestimating the Intelligence of the Computers......Page 882
Conclusions......Page 883
References......Page 884
The Graphics Interface......Page 886
"Conversational" Interactions......Page 889
Data Inputs......Page 890
Visual Display Devices......Page 893
Knowledge-Based Operator Training......Page 895
References......Page 900
Intelligent Alarms......Page 901
References......Page 903
9. Valves, Servos, Motors, and Robots......Page 904
Process Control Valves......Page 908
Sliding-Stem Valves......Page 910
Ball Valves......Page 913
Butterfly Valves......Page 914
Special Control Valves......Page 919
Control Valve Performance [1]......Page 924
Valve Type and Characterization......Page 925
General Selection Criteria......Page 926
Operating Temperature......Page 927
Selection of Materials......Page 928
Valve Packing [1]......Page 929
Flow Characteristic......Page 931
Pressure Drop......Page 932
Flow Capacity......Page 933
Valve Sizing......Page 935
Choked Flow......Page 936
Piping Considerations......Page 937
Power Source......Page 938
Control Functions......Page 939
Actuator Designs......Page 940
Actuator Sizing......Page 945
Summary of Actuator Selection Factors......Page 946
Valve Positioners and Controllers......Page 948
Electropneumatic Transducers......Page 949
Installation Techniques......Page 951
Summary Checklist......Page 955
Control Valve Troubleshooting......Page 957
Common Valve Maintenance Procedures......Page 962
Lapping the Seats......Page 963
Introduction......Page 966
Introduction......Page 967
Valve Hydrodynamics......Page 968
Cavity Mechanics......Page 969
Damage Mechanisms......Page 970
Cavitation Abatement Strategies......Page 971
Backpressure Devices......Page 972
Material Selection......Page 973
Special Trim Designs......Page 974
Background......Page 975
Cavitation Parameters and Coefficients......Page 976
References......Page 978
Noise Terminology......Page 979
Hydrodynamic Noise......Page 981
Aerodynamic Noise: IEC 534-8-3 [2]......Page 982
Path Treatment......Page 983
Introduction......Page 986
Types of Servo Motors......Page 987
General Characteristics and Comparison of Servo Motors......Page 989
Motor Parameters, Definitions, and Terminology......Page 994
Name-Plate Ratings......Page 995
Regulatory Considerations......Page 997
Speed Versus Torque Curves......Page 998
Thermal Ratings-Insulation Class......Page 1000
Mounting......Page 1002
Couplers......Page 1005
Bearings......Page 1006
Lubrication......Page 1008
Vibration......Page 1009
References......Page 1010
Reasons for Using a Variable Speed Drive......Page 1011
Semiconductor Switching Devices......Page 1012
Drive Control Technology......Page 1013
Solid-State dc Drives......Page 1014
ac Variable Frequency Drives......Page 1015
Induction Motor Variable Speed Drives......Page 1016
Medium-Voltage Variable Frequency Drives......Page 1018
The Load Commutated Inverter......Page 1020
Filter Commutated Thyristor Drive......Page 1022
Current-Fed GTO Inverter......Page 1023
Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverter......Page 1024
Cycloconverter......Page 1025
Comparison of Medium-Voltage Motor Drives......Page 1026
Basic Format of Robot......Page 1027
Degrees of Freedom......Page 1028
Dynamic Properties of Robots......Page 1031
Stability......Page 1032
Resolution and Repeatability......Page 1034
End-Effectors (Grippers)......Page 1036
Robot Programming and Control......Page 1038
Traditional Flapper-Nozzle Design......Page 1043
Introduction of New I/P Concepts......Page 1045
Electronic Feedback......Page 1047
10. Process Control Improvement......Page 1049
Model for Improving Process Control to Achieve Business Benefits......Page 1055
Analysis to Identify Control Improvements......Page 1056
Identify Key Product Properties and Process Variables......Page 1057
Identify the Need for Improved Measurement and Control......Page 1058
Statistical Metrics......Page 1059
Estimate Benefits for the Improvements......Page 1061
Yield Stake......Page 1062
Performance Metrics......Page 1063
Conclusions......Page 1064
Introduction......Page 1065
The Process as a Network......Page 1066
Operating Constraints, Uptime, Efficiency......Page 1067
Process Example - Paper Making......Page 1068
Process Control Strategy - Paper Machine Blending......Page 1070
Variability Examples......Page 1072
Diagnostic Principles......Page 1075
Time Series Analysis Tools......Page 1076
Sampling Theory - Time Series Data......Page 1077
Data Aliasing......Page 1078
Antialiasing Filters......Page 1080
Statistical Analysis......Page 1081
Stochastic Data Structures and Ideal Signals......Page 1082
Histogram......Page 1083
Spectral Analysis......Page 1084
Fast Fourier Transform......Page 1086
Power Spectrum......Page 1087
Spectral Analysis Plotting Methods......Page 1088
Spectral Analysis Windowing and Detrending......Page 1089
Cross-Correlation and Autocorrelation Functions......Page 1090
Identifying the Manufacturing Requirements - Fine Paper Machine Example......Page 1091
Ziegler-Nichols Tuning......Page 1092
Coordinated Loop Tuning Based on Operational Requirements......Page 1093
Rules of Thumb for Process Interaction......Page 1094
Rules of Thumb for Buffer Inventory Storage Level Control......Page 1095
Tuning Rules of Thumb for Uniform Manufacturing - Summary......Page 1096
Resonance and Bode's Integral......Page 1097
Lambda Tuning Concept......Page 1098
Impact of Dead Time......Page 1099
Control Loop Robustness and Stability Margins......Page 1100
The Control Loop Performance-Robustness Envelope - Speed of Response versus Robustness......Page 1101
Identifying Plant Dynamics - Open-Loop Step Tests......Page 1102
Control Valve Dynamic Specification......Page 1104
Transmitter Deficiencies......Page 1105
Integrated Process Design and Control - Putting it all Together......Page 1106
Defining Terms and Nomenclature......Page 1107
References......Page 1108
Sample Preparation Methods and Hardware......Page 1109
Multiple-Wavelength Near-Infrared (NIR) Analyzer......Page 1110
Fourier Transform Infrared......Page 1111
Advantages of FTIR......Page 1112
Instrument Operation......Page 1113
Phase Correction......Page 1114
FTIR Interferometer Design [1]......Page 1115
Examples......Page 1117
The Measurement Principle......Page 1118
References......Page 1120
Dynamic Mass Analyzers......Page 1121
Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Analyzer......Page 1123
Ultraviolet/Visible Analyzers......Page 1125
Filter Isolation of Discrete Hollow Cathode Lamps [1]......Page 1126
Diode Array Process Spectrometer [2]......Page 1127
Raman Analyzers......Page 1128
Capabilities and Limitations......Page 1130
Examples of Raman Analyzer Applications......Page 1131
References......Page 1133
Rules of Thumb......Page 1135
Applications......Page 1136
Fundamentals of the Quantitative NMR......Page 1137
X-Ray Fluorescence......Page 1139
Monitoring Catalyst Depletion......Page 1140
Production of X-Ray Emission and Acquisition of XRF Spectra......Page 1142
X-Ray Excitation......Page 1143
Interaction of X Rays with Matter......Page 1145
X-Ray Detectors and Supporting Electronics......Page 1147
Microwave Spectroscopy......Page 1151
Instrument Bandwidth Differences......Page 1155
Guided Microwave Spectrometry......Page 1156
Interpretation of GMS Spectrums......Page 1159
Typical Software Approach to GMS Spectrum Measurement......Page 1160
Process Effects on Measurement......Page 1161
Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation......Page 1163
Signal Processing......Page 1164
Signal Normalization......Page 1165
Sensitivities......Page 1166
Instrumentation......Page 1167
References......Page 1169
Liquid Chromatography......Page 1170
Problems and Causes......Page 1172
Best Practices......Page 1181
Closed-Loop Tuning Method......Page 1186
Shortcut Tuning Method......Page 1187
Simplified Dahlin or Lambda Tuning Method......Page 1188
Best Practices to Improve Performance......Page 1191
What are Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization?......Page 1192
Basic Concepts of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1193
Basic Concepts of Real-Time Optimization?......Page 1197
Linear Systems......Page 1199
Process Representations......Page 1203
Predictive Control......Page 1204
Move Suppression......Page 1206
Extension to the Multivariable Case......Page 1207
Constraint Handling and Economic Optimization......Page 1208
Justification of Constrained Multivariable......Page 1213
Process Modeling Guidelines for Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1214
Impulse Response Modeling......Page 1215
Time Series Analysis......Page 1217
Process Modeling Rules of Thumb......Page 1218
Constrained Multivariable Predictive Controller Tuning and Construction Guidelines......Page 1219
Real-Time Optimization Guidelines......Page 1220
Applications of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control and Real-Time Optimization......Page 1221
Developments and Future Directions of Constrained Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 1222
References......Page 1223
Historical Development......Page 1224
Classification of Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1225
The Multilayer Error Backpropagation Perceptron......Page 1226
Pattern Recognition......Page 1228
Interpolation/Function Approximation......Page 1229
Parameter Estimation and System Identification......Page 1230
Control Applications......Page 1233
Applications of Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1236
Virtual Sensors......Page 1237
Neurocontrollers and Process Optimization......Page 1238
Other Artificial Neural Network Applications......Page 1240
Selection of an Artificial Neural Network Tool Practical Guidelines for Building Artificial Neural Networks......Page 1241
Recurrent Network Architectures......Page 1242
References......Page 1244
11. Standards Overview......Page 1248
Design Life Cycle......Page 1250
Hazard Analysis and Risk Assessment......Page 1251
Develop Safety Requirements Specification......Page 1252
Detailed SIS Design......Page 1253
Process Plant Design......Page 1254
Alarms and Operators......Page 1255
Logic Systems......Page 1256
Sensors......Page 1257
System Analysis......Page 1258
Notes for Table 1......Page 1259
References......Page 1260
Introduction......Page 1261
Physical Installation of a Fieldbus System......Page 1262
Utilizing Fieldbus Devices to Meet Application Requirements......Page 1268
Diagnostic Support of Foundation Fieldbus Devices......Page 1270
Control System Impact......Page 1274
Example Installations: Commercial Fieldbus Installations......Page 1276
Estimating Savings from Using Fieldbus Technology......Page 1277
Reduction of Terminations and Home Run Wiring......Page 1278
Reduction in the Number of I/O Cards......Page 1279
Summary......Page 1280
Best Practices in Applying Fieldbus......Page 1281
Introduction......Page 1282
Definitions......Page 1283
Recipe Types......Page 1284
Recipe Information Categories......Page 1285
Physical Model......Page 1287
Partitioning Equipment Entities......Page 1289
Procedural Control Model/Physical Model/Process Model Relationship......Page 1290
Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Separation......Page 1291
Control Recipe Procedure/Equipment Control Linking......Page 1293
Process and Control Engineering......Page 1294
What is Needed to Define Batch Control......Page 1296
Equipment Entity Details......Page 1298
Summary......Page 1303
Key Points......Page 1304
References......Page 1305
A......Page 1306
B......Page 1307
C......Page 1308
D......Page 1311
E......Page 1312
F......Page 1313
G......Page 1314
I......Page 1315
L......Page 1316
M......Page 1318
N......Page 1320
P......Page 1321
R......Page 1325
S......Page 1326
T......Page 1328
U......Page 1329
W......Page 1330
Z......Page 1331