Principles of Chemistry: A Molecular Approach

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Contents
Preface
1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving
	1.1 Atoms and Molecules
	1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
		THE NATURE OF SCIENCE: Thomas S. Kuhn and Scientific Revolutions
	1.3 The Classification of Matter
		The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas
		Classifying Matter by Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures
		Separating Mixtures
	1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties
	1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change
	1.6 The Units of Measurement
		Standard Units
		The Meter: A Measure of Length
		The Kilogram: A Measure of Mass
		The Second: A Measure of Time
		The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature
		Prefix Multipliers
		Derived Units: Volume and Density
		Volume
		Density
		Calculating Density
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Bone Density
	1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement
		Counting Significant Figures
		Exact Numbers
		Significant Figures in Calculations
		Precision and Accuracy
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Integrity in Data Gathering
	1.8 Solving Chemical Problems
		Converting from One Unit to Another
		General Problem-Solving Strategy
		Units Raised to a Power
		Order-of-Magnitude Estimations
		Problems Involving an Equation
	1.9 Analyzing and Interpreting Data
		Identifying Patterns in Data
		Interpreting Graphs
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
2 Atoms and Elements
	2.1 Brownian Motion: Atoms Confirmed
	2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
	2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
		The Law of Conservation of Mass
		The Law of Definite Proportions
		The Law of Multiple Proportions
		John Dalton and the Atomic Theory
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atoms and Humans
	2.4 The Discovery of the Electron
		Cathode Rays
		Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron
	2.5 The Structure of the Atom
	2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms
		Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons
		Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies
		Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Where Did Elements Come From?
	2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
		Modern Periodic Table Organization
		Ions and the Periodic Table
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Elements of Life
	2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms
		Mass Spectrometry: Measuring the Mass of Atoms and Molecules
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Evolving Atomic Masses
	2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them
		The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen”
		Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms
		Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles)
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
3 Molecules and Compounds
	3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
	3.2 Chemical Bonds
		Ionic Bonds
		Covalent Bonds
	3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
		Types of Chemical Formulas
		Molecular Models
	3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds
	3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names
		Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
		Naming Ionic Compounds
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation
		Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation
		Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
		Hydrated Ionic Compounds
	3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
		Naming Molecular Compounds
		Naming Acids
		Naming Binary Acids
		Naming Oxyacids
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Acid Rain
	3.7 Summary of Inorganic Nomenclature
	3.8 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds
		Molar Mass of a Compound
		Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing
	3.9 Composition of Compounds
		Mass Percent Composition as a Conversion Factor
		Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Methylmercury in Fish
	3.10 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
		Determining Molecular Formulas for Compounds
		Combustion Analysis
	3.11 Organic Compounds
		Hydrocarbons
		Functionalized Hydrocarbons
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
4 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Quantities
	4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
	4.2 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
	4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?
		Making Pizza: The Relationships among Ingredients
		Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions
		Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions
	4.4 Stoichiometric Relationships: Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, Percent Yield, and Reactant in Excess
		Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield
		Calculating Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses
	4.5 Three Examples of Chemical Reactions: Combustion, Alkali Metals, and Halogens
		Combustion Reactions
		Alkali Metal Reactions
		Halogen Reactions
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
5 Introduction to Solutions and Aqueous Reactions
	5.1 Molecular Gastronomy and the Spherified Cherry
	5.2 Solution Concentration
		Solution Concentration
		Using Molarity in Calculations
		Solution Dilution
	5.3 Solution Stoichiometry
	5.4 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility
		Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions
		The Solubility of Ionic Compounds
	5.5 Precipitation Reactions
	5.6 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations
	5.7 Acid–Base Reactions
		Acid–Base Reactions
		Acid–Base Titrations
	5.8 Gas-Evolution Reactions
	5.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions
		Oxidation States
		Identifying Redox Reactions
		The Activity Series: Predicting Whether a Redox Reaction Is Spontaneous
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Bleached Blonde
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
6 Gases
	6.1 Supersonic Skydiving and the Risk of Decompression
	6.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions
		Pressure Units
		The Manometer: A Way to Measure Pressure in the Laboratory
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Blood Pressure
	6.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law
		Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure
		Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Extra-Long Snorkels
		Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)
	6.4 The Ideal Gas Law
	6.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas
		Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure
		Density of a Gas
		Molar Mass of a Gas
	6.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures
		Deep-Sea Diving and Partial Pressures
		Collecting Gases over Water
	6.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited
		Molar Volume and Stoichiometry
		ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING DATA: Good News about Our Nation’s Air Quality
	6.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases
		How Kinetic Molecular Theory Explains Pressure and the Simple Gas Laws
		Kinetic Molecular Theory and the Ideal Gas Law
		Temperature and Molecular Velocities
	6.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases
	6.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces
		The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
		Van der Waals Equation
		Real Gases
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
7 Thermochemistry
	7.1 Chemical Hand Warmers
	7.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions
		Types of Energy
		Energy Conservation and Energy Transfer
		Units of Energy
	7.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics: There Is No Free Lunch
		Internal Energy
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Redheffer’s Perpetual Motion Machine
		Heat and Work
	7.4 Quantifying Heat and Work
		Heat
		Temperature Changes and Heat Capacity
		Thermal Energy Transfer
		Work: Pressure–Volume Work
	7.5 Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry
	7.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure
		Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View
		Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations
	7.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH[sub(rxn)]
	7.8 Relationships Involving ΔH[sub(rxn)]
	7.9 Determining Enthalpies of Reaction from Standard Enthalpies of Formation
		Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes
		Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction
	7.10 Energy Use and the Environment
		Energy Consumption
		Environmental Problems Associated with Fossil Fuel Use
		Air Pollution
		Global Climate Change
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Renewable Energy
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
8 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom
	8.1 Schrödinger’s Cat
	8.2 The Nature of Light
		The Wave Nature of Light
		The Electromagnetic Spectrum
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Radiation: Treatment for Cancer
			Interference and Diffraction
			The Particle Nature of Light
	8.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Atomic Spectroscopy, a Bar Code for Atoms
	8.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy
		The de Broglie Wavelength
		The Uncertainty Principle
		Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps
	8.5 Quantum Mechanics and the Atom
		Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom
		Atomic Spectroscopy Explained
	8.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals
		s Orbitals (l = 0)
		p Orbitals (I = 1)
		d Orbitals (I = 2)
		f Orbitals (I = 3)
		The Phase of Orbitals
		The Shape of Atoms
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
9 Periodic Properties of the Elements
	9.1 Nerve Signal Transmission
	9.2 The Development of the Periodic Table
	9.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals
		Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle
		Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms
		Coulomb’s Law
		Shielding
		Penetration
		Electron Spatial Distributions and Sublevel Splitting
		Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms
	9.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table
		Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table
		Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table
		The Transition and Inner Transition Elements
	9.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model
	9.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge
		Effective Nuclear Charge
		Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements
	9.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy
		Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions
		Ionic Radii
		Ionization Energy
		Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Exceptions to Trends in First Ionization Energy
		Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies
	9.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character
		Electron Affinity
		Metallic Character
	9.9 Periodic Trends Summary
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
10 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model
	10.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs
	10.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
	10.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots
	10.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Symbols and Lattice Energies
		Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer
		Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story
		The Born–Haber Cycle
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size
		Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge
		Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Ionic Compounds in Medicine
	10.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures
		Single Covalent Bonds
		Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
		Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality
	10.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
		Electronegativity
		Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character
	10.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions
		Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds
		Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions
	10.8 Resonance and Formal Charge
		Resonance
		Formal Charge
	10.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded Octets
		Odd-Electron Species
		Incomplete Octets
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Free Radicals and the Atmospheric Vacuum Cleaner
		Expanded Octets
	10.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths
		Bond Energy
		Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions
		Bond Lengths
	10.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Lewis Structure of Ozone
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
11 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory
	11.1 Morphine: A Molecular Imposter
	11.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes
		Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry
		Three Electron Groups: Trigonal Planar Geometry
		Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry
		Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry
		Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry
	11.3 VSEPR Theory: The Effect of Lone Pairs
		Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
		Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs
	11.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries
		Representing Molecular Geometries on Paper
		Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules
	11.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity
		Vector Addition
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: How Soap Works
	11.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond
	11.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals
		sp[sup(3)] Hybridization
		sp[sup(3)] Hybridization and Double Bonds
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Chemistry of Vision
		sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds
		sp[sup(3)] d and sp[sup(3)]d[sup(2)] Hybridization
		Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes
	11.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization
		Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAOs)
		Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules
		Second-Period Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules
		Polyatomic Molecules
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
12 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces
	12.1 Water, No Gravity
	12.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison
		Differences between States of Matter
		Changes between States
	12.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed States Together
		Dispersion Force
		Dipole–Dipole Force
		Hydrogen Bonding
		Ion–Dipole Force
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Hydrogen Bonding in DNA
	12.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action
		Surface Tension
		Viscosity
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Viscosity and Motor Oil
		Capillary Action
	12.5 Vaporization and Vapor Pressure
		The Process of Vaporization
		The Energetics of Vaporization
		Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium
		Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressure and Boiling Point
		The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation
		The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter
	12.6 Sublimation and Fusion
		Sublimation
		Fusion
		Energetics of Melting and Freezing
	12.7 Heating Curve for Water
	12.8 Phase Diagrams
		The Major Features of a Phase Diagram
		Navigation within a Phase Diagram
		The Phase Diagrams of Other Substances
	12.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Water Pollution
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
13 Solids and Modern Materials
	13.1 Friday Night Experiments: The Discovery of Graphene
	13.2 X-Ray Crystallography
	13.3 Unit Cells and Basic Structures
		Cubic Unit Cells
		Closest-Packed Structures
	13.4 The Fundamental Types of Crystalline Solids
		Molecular Solids
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Chocolate, An Edible Material
		Ionic Solids
		Atomic Solids
	13.5 The Structures of Ionic Solids
	13.6 Network Covalent Atomic Solids: Carbon and Silicates
		Carbon
		Silicates
	13.7 Ceramics, Cement, and Glass
		Ceramics
		Cement
		Glass
	13.8 Semiconductors and Band Theory
		Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands
		Doping: Controlling the Conductivity of Semiconductors
	13.9 Polymers and Plastics
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Kevlar
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
14 Solutions
	14.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Shouldn’t Drink Seawater
	14.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility
		Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy
		The Effect of Intermolecular Forces
	14.3 Energetics of Solution Formation
		Energy Changes in Solution Formation
		Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration
	14.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility
		The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids
		Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water
	14.5 Expressing Solution Concentration
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Lake Nyos
		Molarity
		Molality
		Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume
		Using Parts by Mass (or Parts by Volume) in Calculations
		Mole Fraction and Mole Percent
		CHEMISTRY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: The Dirty Dozen
	14.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure
		Vapor Pressure Lowering
		Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute
		Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Antifreeze in Frogs
		Osmotic Pressure
	14.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions
		Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure
		Colligative Properties and Medical Solutions
	14.8 Colloids
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
15 Chemical Kinetics
	15.1 Catching Lizards
	15.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction
		Definition of Reaction Rate
		Measuring Reaction Rates
	15.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate
		The Three Common Reaction Orders (n = 0, 1, and 2)
		Determining the Order of a Reaction
		Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants
	15.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time
		The Integrated Rate Law
		The Half-Life of a Reaction
	15.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate
		The Arrhenius Equation
		The Activation Energy, Frequency Factor, and Exponential Factor
		Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy
		The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor
	15.6 Reaction Mechanisms
		Rate Laws for Elementary Steps
		Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws
		Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step
	15.7 Catalysis
		Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis
		Enzymes: Biological Catalysts
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Enzyme Catalysis and the Role of Chymotrypsin in Digestion
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
16 Chemical Equilibrium
	16.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium
	16.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium
	16.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)
		Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions
		The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Life and Equilibrium
		Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation
	16.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure
		Relationship Between Kp and Kc
		Units of K
	16.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids
	16.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations
	16.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change
	16.8 Finding Equilibrium Concentrations
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products
		Finding Equilibrium Concentrations from the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures
		Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems
	16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances
		The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium
		The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
17 Acids and Bases
	17.1 Heartburn
	17.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases
	17.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases
		The Arrhenius Definition
		The Brønsted–Lowry Definition
	17.4 Acid Strength and the Acid Ionization Constant (K[sub(a)])
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka[sub(a)])
	17.5 Autoionization of Water and pH
		The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity
		pOH and Other p Scales
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE Ulcers
	17.6 Finding the [H[sub(3)])O[sup(+)])] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions
		Strong Acids
		Weak Acids
		Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid
		Mixtures of Acids
	17.7 Base Solutions
		Strong Bases
		Weak Bases
		Finding the [OH-] and pH of Basic Solutions
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: What’s in My Antacid?
	17.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts
		Anions as Weak Bases
		Cations as Weak Acids
		Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral
	17.9 Polyprotic Acids
		Finding the pH of Polyprotic Acid Solutions
		Finding the Concentration of the Anions for a Weak Diprotic Acid Solution
	17.10 Acid Strength and Molecular Structure
		Binary Acids
		Oxyacids
	17.11 Lewis Acids and Bases
		Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids
		Cations That Act as Lewis Acids
	17.12 Acid Rain
		Effects of Acid Rain
		Acid Rain Legislation
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
18 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium
	18.1 The Danger of Antifreeze
	18.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change
		Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution
		The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation
		Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution
		The Stoichiometry Calculation
		The Equilibrium Calculation
		Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid
	18.3 Buffer Effectiveness: Buffer Range and Buffer Capacity
		Relative Amounts of Acid and Base
		Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base
		Buffer Range
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Buffer Effectiveness in Human Blood
		Buffer Capacity
	18.4 Titrations and pH Curves
		The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base
		The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid
		The Titration of a Polyprotic Acid
		Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors
	18.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant
		Ksp and Molar Solubility
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY Hard Water
		Ksp and Relative Solubility
		The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility
		The Effect of pH on Solubility
	18.6 Precipitation
		Selective Precipitation
	18.7 Qualitative Chemical Analysis
		Group 1: Insoluble Chlorides
		Group 2: Acid- Insoluble Sulfides
		Group 3: Base-Insoluble Sulfides and Hydroxides
		Group 4: Insoluble Phosphates
		Group 5: Alkali Metals and NH4+
	18.8 Complex Ion Equilibria
		The Effect of Complex Ion Equilibria on Solubility
		The Solubility of Amphoteric Metal Hydroxides
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
19 Free Energy and Thermodynamics
	19.1 Cold Coffee and Dead Universes
	19.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes
	19.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
		Entropy
		The Entropy Change upon the Expansion of an Ideal Gas
	19.4 Entropy Changes Associated with State Changes
		Entropy and State Change: The Concept
		Entropy and State Changes: The Calculation
	19.5 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings
		The Temperature Dependence of ΔS[sub(surr)]
		Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings
	19.6 Gibbs Free Energy
		The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity
	19.7 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔS°rxn
		Defining Standard States and Standard Entropy Changes
		Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics
		Calculating the Standard Entropy Change (ΔS°rxn ) for a Reaction
	19.8 Free Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ΔG°rxn
		Calculating Standard Free Energy Changes with ΔG° rxn = Δ H°rxn – TΔS°rxn
		Calculating ΔG° rxn with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Making a Nonspontaneous Process Spontaneous
		Calculating ΔG°[sub(rxn)] for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps
		Why Free Energy Is “Free”
	19.9 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States: The Relationship between Δ G°rxn and Δ Grxn
		Standard versus Nonstandard States
		The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions
		Standard Conditions
		Equilibrium Conditions
		Other Nonstandard Conditions
	19.10 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ? G°rxn to the Equilibrium Constant (K)
		The Relationship between Δ G°rxn and K
		The Temperature Dependence of the Equilibrium Constant
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
20 Electrochemistry
	20.1 Lightning and Batteries
	20.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations
	20.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions
		The Voltaic Cell
		Current and Potential Difference
		Anode, Cathode, and Salt Bridge
		Electrochemical Cell Notation
	20.4 Standard Electrode Potentials
		Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction
		Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid
	20.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
		The Relationship between ΔG° and E°cell
		The Relationship between E°cell and K
	20.6 Cell Potential and Concentration
		Cell Potential under Nonstandard Conditions: The Nernst Equation
		Concentration Cells
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: Concentration Cells in Human Nerve Cells
	20.7 Batteries: Using Chemistry to Generate Electricity
		Dry-Cell Batteries
		Lead–Acid Storage Batteries
		Other Rechargeable Batteries
		Fuel Cells
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: The Fuel-Cell Breathalyzer
	20.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity
		Predicting the Products of Electrolysis
		Stoichiometry of Electrolysis
	20.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions
		Corrosion of Iron
		Preventing the Corrosion of Iron
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
21 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry
	21.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis
	21.2 The Discovery of Radioactivity
	21.3 Types of Radioactivity
		Alpha (α) Decay
		Beta (β) Decay
		Gamma (γ) Ray Emission
		Positron Emission
		Electron Capture
	21.4 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity
		Magic Numbers
		Radioactive Decay Series
	21.5 Detecting Radioactivity
	21.6 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating
		The Integrated Rate Law
		Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Radiocarbon Dating and the Shroud of Turin
		Uranium/Lead Dating
		The Age of Earth
	21.7 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power
		The Manhattan Project
		Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity
		Problems with Nuclear Power
	21.8 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
		Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy
		The Nuclear Binding Energy Curve
	21.9 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun
	21.10 Nuclear Transmutation and Transuranium Elements
	21.11 The Effects of Radiation on Life
		Acute Radiation Damage
		Increased Cancer Risk
		Genetic Defects
		Measuring Radiation Exposure and Dose
	21.12 Radioactivity in Medicine and Other Applications
		Diagnosis in Medicine
		Radiotherapy in Medicine
		Other Applications
		Self-Assessment Quiz
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
22 Organic Chemistry
	22.1 Fragrances and Odors
	22.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique
		CHEMISTRY IN YOUR DAY: Vitalism and the Perceived Differences between Organic and Inorganic Compounds
	22.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen
		Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures
		Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism
		Rotation of Polarized Light
		Chemical Behavior in a Chiral Environment
	22.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons
		Naming Alkanes
	22.5 Alkenes and Alkynes
		Naming Alkenes and Alkynes
		Geometric (Cis–Trans) Isomerism in Alkenes
	22.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions
		Reactions of Alkanes
		Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes
	22.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons
		Reactions of Aromatic Compounds
	22.8 Functional Groups
	22.9 Alcohols
		Naming Alcohols
		About Alcohols
		Alcohol Reactions
	22.10 Aldehydes and Ketones
		Naming Aldehydes and Ketones
		About Aldehydes and Ketones
		Aldehyde and Ketone Reactions
	22.11 Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Naming Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		About Carboxylic Acids and Esters
		Carboxylic Acid and Ester Reactions
	22.12 Ethers
		Naming Ethers
		About Ethers
	22.13 Amines
		Amine Reactions
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
23 Biochemistry
	23.1 Diabetes and the Synthesis of Human Insulin
	23.2 Lipids
		Fatty Acids
		Fats and Oils
		Other Lipids
	23.3 Carbohydrates
		Simple Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and Disaccharides
		Complex Carbohydrates
	23.4 Proteins and Amino Acids
		Amino Acids: The Building Blocks of Proteins
		Peptide Bonding between Amino Acids
	23.5 Protein Structure
		Primary Structure
		Secondary Structure
		Tertiary Structure
		Quaternary Structure
	23.6 Nucleic Acids: Blueprints for Proteins
		The Basic Structure of Nucleic Acids
		The Genetic Code
	23.7 DNA Replication, the Double Helix, and Protein Synthesis
		DNA Replication and the Double Helix
		Protein Synthesis
		CHEMISTRY AND MEDICINE: The Human Genome Project
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
24 Chemistry of the Nonmetals
	24.1 Insulated Nanowires
	24.2 The Main-Group Elements: Bonding and Properties
	24.3 Silicates: The Most Abundant Matter in Earth’s Crust
		Quartz
		Aluminosilicates
		Individual Silicate Units, Silicate Chains, and Silicate Sheets
	24.4 Boron and Its Remarkable Structures
		Elemental Boron
		Boron–Halogen Compounds: Trihalides
		Boron–Oxygen Compounds
		Boron–Hydrogen Compounds: Boranes
	24.5 Carbon, Carbides, and Carbonates
		Amorphous Carbon
		Carbides
		Carbon Oxides
		Carbonates
	24.6 Nitrogen and Phosphorus: Essential Elements for Life
		Elemental Nitrogen and Phosphorus
		Nitrogen Compounds
		Phosphorus Compounds
	24.7 Oxygen
		Elemental Oxygen
		Uses for Oxygen
		Oxides
		Ozone
	24.8 Sulfur: A Dangerous but Useful Element
		Elemental Sulfur
		Hydrogen Sulfide and Metal Sulfides
		Sulfur Dioxide
		Sulfuric Acid
	24.9 Halogens: Reactive Elements with High Electronegativity
		Elemental Fluorine and Hydrofluoric Acid
		Elemental Chlorine
		Halogen Compounds
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
25 Metals and Metallurgy
	25.1 Vanadium: A Problem and an Opportunity
	25.2 The General Properties and Natural Distribution of Metals
	25.3 Metallurgical Processes
		Separation
		Pyrometallurgy
		Hydrometallurgy
		Electrometallurgy
		Powder Metallurgy
	25.4 Metal Structures and Alloys
		Alloys
		Substitutional Alloys
		Alloys with Limited Solubility
		Interstitial Alloys
	25.5 Sources, Properties, and Products of Some of the 3d Transition Metals
		Titanium
		Chromium
		Manganese
		Cobalt
		Copper
		Nickel
		Zinc
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
26 Transition Metals and Coordination Compounds
	26.1 The Colors of Rubies and Emeralds
	26.2 Properties of Transition Metals
		Electron Configurations
		Atomic Size
		Ionization Energy
		Electronegativity
		Oxidation States
	26.3 Coordination Compounds
		Naming Coordination Compounds
	26.4 Structure and Isomerization
		Structural Isomerism
		Stereoisomerism
	26.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds
		Valence Bond Theory
		Crystal Field Theory
	26.6 Applications of Coordination Compounds
		Chelating Agents
		Chemical Analysis
		Coloring Agents
		Biomolecules
		Hemoglobin and Cytochrome C
	CHAPTER IN REVIEW: Self-Assessment Quiz
		Terms
		Concepts
		Equations and Relationships
		Learning Outcomes
	EXERCISES: Review Questions
		Problems by Topic
		Cumulative Problems
		Challenge Problems
		Conceptual Problems
		Questions for Group Work
		Data Interpretation and Analysis
		Answers to Conceptual Connections
Appendix I: Common Mathematical Operations in Chemistry
Appendix II: Useful Data
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems
Glossary
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Photo and Text Credits
Index
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