Principles of chemistry: A molecular approach

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright_Page......Page 3
Brief Contents......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 16
Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving......Page 29
 1.1 Atoms and Molecules......Page 30
 1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge......Page 32
  The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas......Page 34
  Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures......Page 35
 1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 36
 1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change......Page 39
  The Standard Units......Page 40
  The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature......Page 41
  Prefix Multipliers......Page 43
  Volume......Page 44
  Calculating Density......Page 45
 1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement......Page 46
  Counting Significant Figures......Page 48
  Exact Numbers......Page 49
  Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 50
  Precision and Accuracy......Page 51
  Converting from One Unit to Another......Page 52
  General Problem-Solving Strategy......Page 54
  Units Raised to a Power......Page 56
  Problems Involving an Equation......Page 57
  Key Concepts......Page 60
  Problems by Topic......Page 61
  Cumulative Problems......Page 65
  Challenge Problems......Page 66
  Conceptual Problems......Page 67
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 68
Chapter 2 Atoms and Elements......Page 69
 2.1 I maging and Moving Individual Atoms......Page 70
  The Law of Conservation of Mass......Page 72
  The Law of Definite Proportions......Page 73
  The Law of Multiple Proportions......Page 74
 2.3 The Discovery of the Electron......Page 75
  Cathode Rays......Page 76
 2.4 The Structure of the Atom......Page 77
 2.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms......Page 79
  Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons......Page 80
  Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies......Page 81
  Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons......Page 83
 2.6 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table......Page 84
  Ions and the Periodic Table......Page 86
 2.7 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms......Page 88
  The Mole: A Chemist’s “Dozen”......Page 89
  Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms......Page 90
  Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles)......Page 91
  Key Terms......Page 95
  Key Learning Objectives......Page 96
  Problems by Topic......Page 97
  Cumulative Problems......Page 99
  Challenge Problems......Page 100
  Questions for Group Work......Page 101
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 102
Chapter 3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations......Page 103
 3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water......Page 104
  Ionic Bonds......Page 106
  Types of Chemical Formulas......Page 107
 3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds......Page 109
 3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names......Page 113
  Naming Ionic Compounds......Page 114
  Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation......Page 116
  Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More Than One Kind of Cation......Page 117
  Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions......Page 118
  Hydrated Ionic Compounds......Page 119
  Naming Molecular Compounds......Page 120
  Naming Acids......Page 121
  Naming Oxyacids......Page 122
 3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds......Page 123
  Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing......Page 124
 3.8 Composition of Compounds......Page 126
  Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas......Page 128
 3.9 D etermining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data......Page 129
  Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds......Page 131
  Combustion Analysis......Page 132
 3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 134
  Writing Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 136
 3.11 Organic Compounds......Page 138
  Key Concepts......Page 141
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 142
  Key Learning Objectives......Page 143
  Problems by Topic......Page 144
  Cumulative Problems......Page 147
  Challenge Problems......Page 148
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 149
Chapter 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions......Page 151
 4.1 Climate Change and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels......Page 152
  Making Pizza: The Relationships Among Ingredients......Page 154
  Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions......Page 155
 4.3 L imiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield......Page 158
  Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses......Page 160
 4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry......Page 164
  Solution Concentration......Page 165
  Using Molarity in Calculations......Page 166
  Solution Stoichiometry......Page 170
 4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility......Page 171
  Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions......Page 172
  The Solubility of Ionic Compounds......Page 173
 4.6 Precipitation Reactions......Page 175
 4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations......Page 179
  Acid–Base Reactions......Page 181
  Gas-Evolution Reactions......Page 184
 4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 186
  Oxidation States......Page 188
  Identifying Redox Reactions......Page 190
  Combustion Reactions......Page 192
  Key Concepts......Page 194
  Problems by Topic......Page 195
  Cumulative Problems......Page 199
  Challenge Problems......Page 200
  Conceptual Problems......Page 201
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 202
Chapter 5 Gases......Page 203
 5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work......Page 204
 5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions......Page 205
  Pressure Units......Page 206
 5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’s Law, and Avogadro’s Law......Page 207
  Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure......Page 208
  Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature......Page 210
  Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)......Page 212
 5.4 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 213
 5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas......Page 215
  Density of a Gas......Page 216
  Molar Mass of a Gas......Page 218
 5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures......Page 219
  Collecting Gases over Water......Page 223
 5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited......Page 225
  Molar Volume and Stoichiometry......Page 227
 5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases......Page 228
  Dalton’s Law......Page 229
  Temperature and Molecular Velocities......Page 230
 5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases......Page 232
  The Effect of the Finite Volume of Gas Particles......Page 234
  The Effect of Intermolecular Forces......Page 235
  Van der Waals Equation......Page 236
  Key Concepts......Page 237
  Key Learning Objectives......Page 238
  Problems by Topic......Page 239
  Cumulative Problems......Page 242
  Challenge Problems......Page 244
  Questions for Group Work......Page 245
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 246
Chapter 6 Thermochemistry......Page 247
 6.1 Chemical Hand Warmers......Page 248
 6.2 The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions......Page 249
  Units of Energy......Page 251
  Internal Energy......Page 252
  Heat......Page 257
  Thermal Energy Transfer......Page 259
  Work: Pressure–Volume Work......Page 261
 6.5 Measuring ��E for Chemical Reactions: Constant-Volume Calorimetry......Page 262
 6.6 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure......Page 265
  Exothermic and Endothermic Processes: A Molecular View......Page 267
  Stoichiometry Involving ��H: Thermochemical Equations......Page 268
 6.7 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ��Hrxn......Page 269
 6.8 Hess’s Law and Other Relationships Involving ��Hrxn......Page 271
  Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes......Page 274
  Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction......Page 276
  Key Concepts......Page 280
  Key Learning Objectives......Page 281
  Problems by Topic......Page 282
  Cumulative Problems......Page 285
  Challenge Problems......Page 286
  Questions for Group Work......Page 287
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 288
Chapter 7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom......Page 289
 7.2 The Nature of Light......Page 291
  The Wave Nature of Light......Page 292
  The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 294
  Interference and Diffraction......Page 295
  The Particle Nature of Light......Page 297
 7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and the Bohr Model......Page 300
 7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The de Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy......Page 302
  The de Broglie Wavelength......Page 303
  The Uncertainty Principle......Page 304
  Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps......Page 306
  Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom......Page 308
  Atomic Spectroscopy Explained......Page 312
 7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals......Page 314
  s Orbitals (l = 0)......Page 315
  p Orbitals (l = 1)......Page 317
  d Orbitals (l = 2)......Page 318
  The Shapes of Atoms......Page 319
  Key Terms......Page 320
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 321
  Problems by Topic......Page 322
  Cumulative Problems......Page 323
  Challenge Problems......Page 324
  Questions for Group Work......Page 325
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 326
Chapter 8 Periodic Properties of the Elements......Page 327
 8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission......Page 328
 8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table......Page 329
 8.3 Electron Configurations: How Electrons Occupy Orbitals......Page 330
  Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms......Page 331
  Electron Spatial Distributions and Sublevel Splitting......Page 333
  Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms......Page 335
 8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table......Page 338
  Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table......Page 339
  Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from ItsPosition in the Periodic Table......Page 340
  The Transition and Inner Transition Elements......Page 341
 8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model......Page 342
 8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 343
  Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 345
  Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements......Page 346
  Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions......Page 348
  Ionic Radii......Page 349
  Trends in First Ionization Energy......Page 352
  Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies......Page 355
 8.8 Electron Affinities and Metallic Character......Page 356
  Metallic Character......Page 357
  Key Concepts......Page 361
  Problems by Topic......Page 362
  Cumulative Problems......Page 364
  Conceptual Problems......Page 365
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 366
Chapter 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Lewis Model......Page 367
 9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds......Page 369
 9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots......Page 371
  Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer......Page 372
  Lattice Energy: The Rest of the Story......Page 373
  Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge......Page 374
  Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality......Page 375
  Single Covalent Bonds......Page 376
  Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality......Page 377
 9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 378
  Electronegativity......Page 379
  Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character......Page 380
  Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds......Page 383
  Writing Lewis Structures for Polyatomic Ions......Page 384
  Resonance......Page 385
  Formal Charge......Page 387
  Incomplete Octets......Page 390
  Expanded Octets......Page 391
 9.10 Bond Energies and Bond Lengths......Page 392
  Bond Energy......Page 393
  Using Average Bond Energies to EstimateEnthalpy Changes for Reactions......Page 394
  Bond Lengths......Page 396
 9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model......Page 397
  Key Concepts......Page 399
  Problems by Topic......Page 400
  Cumulative Problems......Page 402
  Challenge Problems......Page 403
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 404
Chapter 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 405
 10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape......Page 406
 10.2 VSEPR Theory: The Five Basic Shapes......Page 407
  Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry......Page 408
  Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry......Page 409
  Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry......Page 410
  Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 411
  Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 413
  Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 414
 10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries......Page 415
  Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules......Page 418
 10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity......Page 419
 10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond......Page 422
 10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 424
  sp3 Hybridization......Page 426
  sp2 Hybridization and Double Bonds......Page 427
  sp Hybridization and Triple Bonds......Page 431
  sp3d and sp3d2 Hybridization......Page 432
  Writing Hybridization and BondingSchemes......Page 434
 10.8 Molecular Orbital Theory: Electron Delocalization......Page 436
  Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO......Page 437
  Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 440
  Key Concepts......Page 447
  Problems by Topic......Page 448
  Cumulative Problems......Page 451
  Conceptual Problems......Page 453
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 454
Chapter 11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces......Page 455
 11.1 Water, No Gravity......Page 456
 11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison......Page 457
 11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold  Condensed States Together......Page 459
  Dispersion Force......Page 460
  Dipole–Dipole Force......Page 462
  Hydrogen Bonding......Page 464
  Ion–Dipole Force......Page 466
 11.4 Intermolecular Forces in Action: Surface Tension, Viscosity, and Capillary Action......Page 467
  Viscosity......Page 468
  The Process of Vaporization......Page 469
  The Energetics of Vaporization......Page 470
  Heat of Vaporization......Page 471
  Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 472
  Temperature Dependence of Vapor Pressureand Boiling Point......Page 474
  The Clausius–Clapeyron Equation......Page 475
  The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual State of Matter......Page 477
  Sublimation......Page 478
  Energetics of Melting and Freezing......Page 479
 11.7 Heating Curve for Water......Page 480
  Regions......Page 481
  The Critical Point......Page 482
 11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance......Page 483
 11.10 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures......Page 484
  Closest-Packed Structures......Page 488
 11.11 Crystalline Solids: The Fundamental Types......Page 490
  Ionic Solids......Page 491
  Atomic Solids......Page 492
 11.12 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory......Page 494
  Key Concepts......Page 496
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 497
  Problems by Topic......Page 498
  Cumulative Problems......Page 502
  Conceptual Problems......Page 503
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 504
Chapter 12 Solutions......Page 505
 12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not Drink Seawater......Page 506
 12.2 Types of Solutions and Solubility......Page 508
  Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy 507 The Effect of Intermolecular Forces......Page 509
 12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 512
  Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration......Page 513
  The Temperature Dependence of the Solubility of Solids......Page 516
  Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gasesin Water......Page 517
 12.5 Expressing Solution Concentration......Page 519
  Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume......Page 521
  Mole Fraction and Mole Percent......Page 522
 12.6 Colligative Properties: Vapor Pressure Lowering, Freezing Point Depression, Boiling Point Elevation, and Osmotic Pressure......Page 524
  Vapor Pressure Lowering......Page 525
  Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile(Nonelectrolyte) Solute......Page 528
  Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation......Page 529
  Osmosis......Page 532
 12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions......Page 534
  Strong Electrolytes and Vapor Pressure......Page 535
  Key Concepts......Page 537
  Key Learning Objectives......Page 538
  Problems by Topic......Page 539
  Cumulative Problems......Page 541
  Conceptual Problems......Page 543
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 544
Chapter 13 Chemical Kinetics......Page 545
 13.1 Catching Lizards......Page 546
 13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction......Page 547
 13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate......Page 550
  Determining the Order of a Reaction......Page 552
  Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants......Page 553
 13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time......Page 556
  The Half-Life of a Reaction......Page 560
 13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate......Page 563
  Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy......Page 565
  The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor......Page 568
  Rate Laws for Elementary Steps......Page 569
  Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws......Page 570
  Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 571
 13.7 Catalysis......Page 573
  Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 574
  Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 575
  Key Concepts......Page 578
  Problems by Topic......Page 579
  Cumulative Problems......Page 584
  Challenge Problems......Page 586
  Conceptual Problems......Page 587
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 588
Chapter 14 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 589
 14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium......Page 590
 14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 592
 14.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)......Page 593
  Expressing Equilibrium Constants for Chemical Reactions......Page 594
  The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 595
  Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and theChemical Equation......Page 596
 14.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure......Page 598
  Units of K......Page 599
 14.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids......Page 600
 14.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 601
 14.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change......Page 604
  Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When We Are Given the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products......Page 606
  Simplifying Approximations in Working  Equilibrium Problems......Page 611
  The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium......Page 615
  The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium......Page 617
  The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium......Page 618
  Key Terms......Page 620
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 621
  Problems by Topic......Page 622
  Cumulative Problems......Page 626
  Conceptual Problems......Page 627
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 628
Chapter 15 Acids and Bases......Page 629
 15.1 Heartburn......Page 630
 15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases......Page 631
 15.3 Definitions of Acids and Bases......Page 632
  The Brønsted–Lowry Definition......Page 633
  Strong Acids......Page 635
  Weak Acids......Page 636
  The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)......Page 637
 15.5 Autoionization of Water and pH......Page 638
  The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity......Page 640
  pOH and Other p Scales......Page 642
  Weak Acids......Page 643
  Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid......Page 649
  Weak Bases......Page 651
  Finding the [OH−] and pH of Basic Solutions......Page 653
 15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts......Page 654
  Cations as Weak Acids......Page 658
  Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral......Page 659
  Binary Acids......Page 661
  Oxyacids......Page 662
 15.10 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 663
  Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids......Page 664
  Cations That Act as Lewis Acids......Page 665
  Key Concepts......Page 666
  Problems by Topic......Page 667
  Cumulative Problems......Page 670
  Challenge Problems......Page 671
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 672
Chapter 16 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium......Page 673
 16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze......Page 674
 16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change......Page 675
  Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution......Page 677
  The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation......Page 678
  The Stoichiometry Calculation......Page 681
  The Equilibrium Calculation......Page 682
  Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid......Page 684
  Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base......Page 686
  Buffer Range......Page 687
  Buffer Capacity......Page 688
 16.4 Titrations and pH Curves......Page 689
  The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base......Page 690
  The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base......Page 693
  The Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid......Page 699
  Indicators: pHDependent  Colors......Page 700
  Ksp and Molar Solubility......Page 702
  The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility......Page 704
  The Effect of pH on Solubility......Page 706
 16.6 Precipitation......Page 707
 16.7 Complex Ion Equilibria......Page 708
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 711
  Problems by Topic......Page 712
  Cumulative Problems......Page 716
  Conceptual Problems......Page 717
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 718
Chapter 17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics......Page 719
 17.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even......Page 721
 17.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes......Page 722
 17.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 723
  Entropy......Page 724
  The Entropy Change Associated witha Change in State......Page 729
 17.4 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings......Page 730
  Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings......Page 731
 17.5 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 733
  The Effect of ��H, ��S, and T on Spontaneity......Page 735
 17.6 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions: Calculating ��S°rxn......Page 736
  Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 737
  Calculating Free Energy Changes with  ��G°rxn = ��H°rxn - T��S°rxn......Page 741
  Calculating ��G°rxn with Tabulated Values of Free Energiesof Formation......Page 742
  Calculating ��G°rxn for a Stepwise Reaction from the  Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps......Page 744
  Why Free Energy Is “Free”......Page 745
 17.8 Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States:The Relationship between ��G°rxn and ��Grxn......Page 746
  Standard Conditions......Page 747
  Other Nonstandard Conditions......Page 748
 17.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ��G°rxn to the  Equilibrium Constant (K......Page 749
  Key Terms......Page 752
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 753
  Problems by Topic......Page 754
  Cumulative Problems......Page 757
  Challenge Problems......Page 758
  Questions for Group Work......Page 759
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 760
Chapter 18 Electrochemistry......Page 761
 18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid......Page 762
 18.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations......Page 763
 18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions......Page 766
  Electrochemical Cell Notation......Page 768
 18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 769
  Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction......Page 774
 18.5 Cell Potential, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant......Page 776
  The Relationship between .G° and E°cell......Page 777
  The Relationship between E°cell and K......Page 778
 18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration......Page 780
  Concentration Cells......Page 783
  Dry-Cell Batteries......Page 784
  Other Rechargeable Batteries......Page 785
  Fuel Cells......Page 786
 18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity......Page 787
  Stoichiometry of Electrolysis......Page 790
 18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions......Page 791
  Preventing Corrosion......Page 793
  Key Concepts......Page 794
  Key Equations and Relationships......Page 795
  Problems by Topic......Page 796
  Cumulative Problems......Page 799
  Challenge Problems......Page 800
  Questions for Group Work......Page 801
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 802
Chapter 19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry......Page 803
 19.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis......Page 804
 19.2 Types of Radioactivity......Page 805
  Alpha (A) Decay......Page 806
  Beta (B) Decay......Page 807
  Electron Capture......Page 808
 19.3 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity......Page 810
 19.4 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating......Page 812
  The Integrated Rate Law......Page 814
  Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity toMeasure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts......Page 815
  Uranium/Lead Dating......Page 817
 19.5 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power......Page 818
  Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity......Page 820
 19.6 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 821
  Mass Defect......Page 822
 19.7 Nuclear Fusion: The Power of the Sun......Page 824
  Measuring Radiation Exposure......Page 825
  Diagnosis in Medicine......Page 827
  Radiotherapy in Medicine......Page 828
  Key Terms......Page 829
  Key Concepts......Page 830
  Problems by Topic......Page 831
  Challenge Problems......Page 833
  Answers to Conceptual Connections......Page 834
Appendix I......Page 836
Appendix II......Page 842
Appendix III......Page 852
Appendix IV......Page 877
Glossary......Page 882
Credits......Page 898
 A......Page 900
 B......Page 902
 C......Page 904
 E......Page 907
 F......Page 910
 G......Page 911
 H......Page 912
 I......Page 914
 K......Page 915
 L......Page 916
 M......Page 917
 N......Page 919
 O......Page 920
 P......Page 921
 Q......Page 923
 R......Page 924
 S......Page 925
 T......Page 929
 V......Page 930
 W......Page 931
 Z......Page 932