Principles of chemistry : a molecular approach

Cover......Page 1
Copyright Page......Page 4
Title Page......Page 5
Dedication Page......Page 6
Brief Contents......Page 8
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 18
Acknowledgments......Page 19
Supplements......Page 21
1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving......Page 22
1.1 Atoms and Molecules......Page 23
1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge......Page 25
1.3 The Classification of Matter......Page 26
The States of Matter: Solid, Liquid, and Gas......Page 27
Classifying Matter According to Its Composition: Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures......Page 28
1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes and Physical and Chemical Properties......Page 29
1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical and Chemical Change......Page 32
1.6 The Units of Measurement......Page 33
The Kelvin: A Measure of Temperature......Page 34
Prefix Multipliers......Page 36
Derived Units: Volume and Density......Page 37
Calculating Density......Page 38
1.7 The Reliability of a Measurement......Page 39
Counting Significant Figures......Page 41
Significant Figures in Calculations......Page 42
Precision and Accuracy......Page 44
Converting from One Unit to Another......Page 45
General Problem-Solving Strategy......Page 47
Units Raised to a Power......Page 49
Problems Involving an Equation......Page 50
Key Concepts......Page 52
Problems by Topic......Page 53
Cumulative Problems......Page 57
Challenge Problems......Page 58
Conceptual Problems......Page 59
2 Atoms and Elements......Page 60
2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms......Page 61
The Law of Conservation of Mass......Page 63
The Law of Definite Proportions......Page 64
The Law of Multiple Proportions......Page 65
Cathode Rays......Page 66
Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment: The Charge of the Electron......Page 67
2.4 The Structure of the Atom......Page 68
2.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms......Page 70
Elements: Defined by Their Numbers of Protons......Page 71
Isotopes: When the Number of Neutrons Varies......Page 72
Ions: Losing and Gaining Electrons......Page 74
2.6 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table......Page 75
Ions and the Periodic Table......Page 78
2.7 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Element’s Atoms......Page 79
2.8 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them......Page 80
Converting between Number of Moles and Number of Atoms......Page 81
Converting between Mass and Amount (Number of Moles)......Page 82
Key Concepts......Page 86
Key Skills......Page 87
Problems by Topic......Page 88
Cumulative Problems......Page 90
Conceptual Problems......Page 91
3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations......Page 92
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water......Page 93
Ionic Bonds......Page 94
Covalent Bonds......Page 95
Types of Chemical Formulas......Page 96
Molecular Models......Page 97
3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds......Page 98
3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names......Page 101
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds......Page 102
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms Only One Type of Cation......Page 103
Naming Binary Ionic Compounds Containing a Metal That Forms More than One Kind of Cation......Page 104
Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions......Page 105
Naming Molecular Compounds......Page 106
Naming Binary Acids......Page 108
3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds......Page 109
Using Molar Mass to Count Molecules by Weighing......Page 110
3.8 Composition of Compounds......Page 112
Conversion Factors from Chemical Formulas......Page 114
3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data......Page 116
Calculating Molecular Formulas for Compounds......Page 117
Combustion Analysis......Page 119
3.10 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 121
How to Write Balanced Chemical Equations......Page 122
3.11 Organic Compounds......Page 124
Key Terms......Page 125
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 126
Problems by Topic......Page 128
Cumulative Problems......Page 132
Conceptual Problems......Page 133
4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions......Page 134
4.1 Global Warming and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels......Page 135
4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?......Page 136
Making Molecules: Mole-to-Mole Conversions......Page 137
Making Molecules: Mass-to-Mass Conversions......Page 138
4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield......Page 141
Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield from Initial Reactant Masses......Page 143
Solution Concentration......Page 146
Using Molarity in Calculations......Page 148
Solution Stoichiometry......Page 151
4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility......Page 153
Electrolyte and Nonelectrolyte Solutions......Page 154
The Solubility of Ionic Compounds......Page 155
4.6 Precipitation Reactions......Page 157
4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations......Page 160
Acid–Base Reactions......Page 161
Gas-Evolution Reactions......Page 164
4.9 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 166
Oxidation States......Page 167
Identifying Redox Reactions......Page 169
Combustion Reactions......Page 172
Key Concepts......Page 173
Key Skills......Page 174
Problems by Topic......Page 175
Cumulative Problems......Page 178
Conceptual Problems......Page 180
5 Gases......Page 182
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work......Page 183
Pressure Units......Page 184
Boyle’s Law: Volume and Pressure......Page 186
Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature......Page 189
Avogadro’s Law: Volume and Amount (in Moles)......Page 191
5.4 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 192
Molar Volume at Standard Temperature and Pressure......Page 195
Density of a Gas......Page 196
Molar Mass of a Gas......Page 198
5.6 Mixtures of Gases and Partial Pressures......Page 199
Collecting Gases over Water......Page 202
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited......Page 204
Molar Volume and Stoichiometry......Page 205
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases......Page 207
Temperature and Molecular Velocities......Page 208
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, and Effusion of Gases......Page 212
5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size and Intermolecular Forces......Page 213
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces......Page 214
Van der Waals Equation......Page 215
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 216
Key Skills......Page 217
Problems by Topic......Page 218
Cumulative Problems......Page 220
Challenge Problems......Page 222
Conceptual Problems......Page 223
6 Thermochemistry......Page 224
The Nature of Energy: Key Definitions......Page 225
Units of Energy......Page 227
Internal Energy......Page 228
Heat......Page 233
Work: Pressure–Volume Work......Page 235
6.4 Measuring ΔE for Chemical Reactions: Constants-Volume Calorimetry......Page 236
6.5 Enthalpy: The Heat Evolved in a Chemical Reaction at Constant Pressure......Page 239
Stoichiometry Involving ΔH: Thermochemical Equations......Page 241
6.6 Constant-Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔHrxn......Page 243
6.7 Relationships Involving ΔHrxn......Page 244
Standard States and Standard Enthalpy Changes......Page 247
Calculating the Standard Enthalpy Change for a Reaction......Page 249
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 252
Problems by Topic......Page 253
Cumulative Problems......Page 256
Conceptual Problems......Page 257
7 The Quantum-Mechanical Model of the Atom......Page 258
7.1 Quantum Mechanics: A Theory That Explains the Behavior of the Absolutely Small......Page 259
The Wave Nature of Light......Page 260
The Electromagnetic Spectrum......Page 262
Interference and Diffraction......Page 263
The Particle Nature of Light......Page 264
7.3 Atomic Spectroscopy and The Bohr Model......Page 268
7.4 The Wave Nature of Matter: The De Broglie Wavelength, the Uncertainty Principle, and Indeterminacy......Page 271
The de Broglie Wavelength......Page 272
The Uncertainty Principle......Page 273
Indeterminacy and Probability Distribution Maps......Page 274
Solutions to the Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom......Page 276
Atomic Spectroscopy Explained......Page 279
s Orbitals (l = 0)......Page 281
f Orbitals (l = 3)......Page 285
Key Concepts......Page 286
Problems by Topic......Page 287
Cumulative Problems......Page 288
Conceptual Problems......Page 289
8 Periodic Properties of the Elements......Page 290
8.1 Nerve Signal Transmission......Page 291
8.2 The Development of the Periodic Table......Page 292
Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 293
Sublevel Energy Splitting in Multielectron Atoms......Page 294
Electron Configurations for Multielectron Atoms......Page 296
8.4 Electron Configurations, Valence Electrons, and the Periodic Table......Page 299
Orbital Blocks in the Periodic Table......Page 300
Writing an Electron Configuration for an Element from Its Position in the Periodic Table......Page 301
The Transition and Inner Transition Elements......Page 302
8.5 The Explanatory Power of the Quantum-Mechanical Model......Page 303
8.6 Periodic Trends in the Size of Atoms and Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 304
Effective Nuclear Charge......Page 306
Atomic Radii and the Transition Elements......Page 307
8.7 Ions: Electron Configurations, Magnetic Properties, Ionic Radii, and Ionization Energy......Page 308
Electron Configurations and Magnetic Properties of Ions......Page 309
Ionic Radii......Page 310
Ionization Energy......Page 313
Trends in First Ionization Energy......Page 314
Trends in Second and Successive Ionization Energies......Page 316
Electron Affinity......Page 317
Metallic Character......Page 318
Key Concepts......Page 321
Problems by Topic......Page 322
Challenge Problems......Page 324
Conceptual Problems......Page 325
9 Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory......Page 326
9.1 Bonding Models and AIDS Drugs......Page 327
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds......Page 328
9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots......Page 330
Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer......Page 331
Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Size......Page 332
Trends in Lattice Energies: Ion Charge......Page 333
Ionic Bonding: Models and Reality......Page 334
Single Covalent Bonds......Page 335
Covalent Bonding: Models and Reality......Page 336
9.6 Electronegativity and Bond Polarity......Page 337
Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character......Page 338
Writing Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds......Page 341
Resonance......Page 343
Formal Charge......Page 345
Odd-Electron Species......Page 347
Expanded Octets......Page 348
Using Average Bond Energies to Estimate Enthalpy Changes for Reactions......Page 350
Bond Lengths......Page 353
9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model......Page 354
Key Concepts......Page 355
Key Skills......Page 356
Problems by Topic......Page 357
Cumulative Problems......Page 358
Conceptual Problems......Page 359
10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Shapes, Valence Bond Theory, and Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 360
10.1 Artificial Sweeteners: Fooled by Molecular Shape......Page 361
Two Electron Groups: Linear Geometry......Page 362
Four Electron Groups: Tetrahedral Geometry......Page 363
Five Electron Groups: Trigonal Bipyramidal Geometry......Page 364
Six Electron Groups: Octahedral Geometry......Page 365
Four Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 366
Five Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 367
Six Electron Groups with Lone Pairs......Page 369
10.4 VSEPR Theory: Predicting Molecular Geometries......Page 371
Predicting the Shapes of Larger Molecules......Page 373
10.5 Molecular Shape and Polarity......Page 374
10.6 Valence Bond Theory: Orbital Overlap as a Chemical Bond......Page 377
10.7 Valence Bond Theory: Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 379
sp³ Hybridization......Page 380
sp² Hybridization and Double Bonds......Page 382
sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization......Page 386
Writing Hybridization and Bonding Schemes......Page 388
Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals (LCAO)......Page 392
Period Two Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules......Page 395
Key Concepts......Page 401
Problems by Topic......Page 402
Cumulative Problems......Page 405
Conceptual Problems......Page 407
11 Liquids, Solids, and Intermolecular Forces......Page 408
11.1 Climbing Geckos and Intermolecular Forces......Page 409
11.2 Solids, Liquids, and Gases: A Molecular Comparison......Page 410
Changes between Phases......Page 411
11.3 Intermolecular Forces: The Forces That Hold Condensed Phases Together......Page 412
Dispersion Force......Page 413
Dipole–Dipole Force......Page 415
Hydrogen Bonding......Page 417
Ion–Dipole Force......Page 418
Surface Tension......Page 419
Viscosity......Page 420
The Process of Vaporization......Page 421
The Energetics of Vaporization......Page 423
Vapor Pressure and Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 424
The Critical Point: The Transition to an Unusual Phase of Matter......Page 430
Sublimation......Page 431
Energetics of Melting and Freezing......Page 432
11.7 Heating Curve for Water......Page 433
The Major Features of a Phase Diagram......Page 434
Navigation within a Phase Diagram......Page 435
11.9 Water: An Extraordinary Substance......Page 436
11.10 Crystalline Solids: Unit Cells and Basic Structures......Page 437
Closest-Packed Structures......Page 441
Molecular Solids......Page 443
Ionic Solids......Page 444
Atomic Solids......Page 445
11.12 Crystalline Solids: Band Theory......Page 447
Key Terms......Page 448
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 449
Problems by Topic......Page 450
Cumulative Problems......Page 454
Conceptual Problems......Page 455
12 Solutions......Page 456
12.1 Thirsty Solutions: Why You Should Not Drink Seawater......Page 457
Nature’s Tendency toward Mixing: Entropy......Page 459
The Effect of Intermolecular Forces......Page 460
12.3 Energetics of Solution Formation......Page 463
Aqueous Solutions and Heats of Hydration......Page 465
12.4 Solution Equilibrium and Factors Affecting Solubility......Page 467
Factors Affecting the Solubility of Gases in Water......Page 468
Molarity......Page 471
Parts by Mass and Parts by Volume......Page 472
Mole Fraction and Mole Percent......Page 474
Vapor Pressure Lowering......Page 476
Vapor Pressures of Solutions Containing a Volatile (Nonelectrolyte) Solute......Page 480
Freezing Point Depression and Boiling Point Elevation......Page 481
Osmosis......Page 484
12.7 Colligative Properties of Strong Electrolyte Solutions......Page 486
Key Concepts......Page 487
Key Skills......Page 488
Problems by Topic......Page 489
Cumulative Problems......Page 491
Challenge Problems......Page 492
Conceptual Problems......Page 493
13 Chemical Kinetics......Page 494
13.1 Catching Lizards......Page 495
13.2 The Rate of a Chemical Reaction......Page 496
13.3 The Rate Law: The Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate......Page 499
Reaction Order for Multiple Reactants......Page 501
13.4 The Integrated Rate Law: The Dependence of Concentration on Time......Page 503
The Half-Life of a Reaction......Page 508
13.5 The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rate......Page 511
Arrhenius Plots: Experimental Measurements of the Frequency Factor and the Activation Energy......Page 513
The Collision Model: A Closer Look at the Frequency Factor......Page 515
13.6 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 516
Rate Laws for Elementary Steps......Page 517
Rate-Determining Steps and Overall Reaction Rate Laws......Page 518
Mechanisms with a Fast Initial Step......Page 519
13.7 Catalysis......Page 521
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalysis......Page 522
Enzymes: Biological Catalysts......Page 523
Key Concepts......Page 524
Problems by Topic......Page 525
Cumulative Problems......Page 530
Challenge Problems......Page 532
Conceptual Problems......Page 533
14 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 534
14.1 Fetal Hemoglobin and Equilibrium......Page 535
14.2 The Concept of Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 536
14.3 The Equilibrium Constant (K)......Page 537
The Significance of the Equilibrium Constant......Page 539
Relationships between the Equilibrium Constant and the Chemical Equation......Page 541
14.4 Expressing the Equilibrium Constant in Terms of Pressure......Page 542
14.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria: Reactions Involving Solids and Liquids......Page 544
14.6 Calculating the Equilibrium Constant from Measured Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 546
14.7 The Reaction Quotient: Predicting the Direction of Change......Page 548
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When You Are Given the Equilibrium Constant and All but One of the Equilibrium Concentrations of the Reactants and Products......Page 551
Finding Equilibrium Concentrations When You Are Given the Equilibrium Constant and Initial Concentrations or Pressures......Page 552
Simplifying Approximations in Working Equilibrium Problems......Page 556
14.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle: How a System at Equilibrium Responds to Disturbances......Page 559
The Effect of a Concentration Change on Equilibrium......Page 560
The Effect of a Volume (or Pressure) Change on Equilibrium......Page 561
The Effect of a Temperature Change on Equilibrium......Page 563
Key Concepts......Page 564
Key Skills......Page 565
Problems by Topic......Page 566
Cumulative Problems......Page 570
Conceptual Problems......Page 571
15 Acids and Bases......Page 572
15.1 Heartburn......Page 573
15.2 The Nature of Acids and Bases......Page 574
The Arrhenius Definition......Page 575
The Brønsted–Lowry Definition......Page 576
Weak Acids......Page 578
The Acid Ionization Constant (Ka)......Page 580
15.5 Autoionization of Water and pH......Page 581
The pH Scale: A Way to Quantify Acidity and Basicity......Page 583
15.6 Finding the [H3O+] and pH of Strong and Weak Acid Solutions......Page 585
Weak Acids......Page 586
Polyprotic Acids......Page 590
Percent Ionization of a Weak Acid......Page 592
Weak Bases......Page 594
Finding the and [OH–] and pH of Basic solution......Page 595
15.8 The Acid–Base Properties of Ions and Salts......Page 597
Anions as Weak Bases......Page 598
Cations as Weak Acids......Page 601
Classifying Salt Solutions as Acidic, Basic, or Neutral......Page 602
Binary Acids......Page 605
15.10 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 606
Molecules That Act as Lewis Acids......Page 607
Key Terms......Page 608
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 609
Problems by Topic......Page 610
Cumulative Problems......Page 613
Conceptual Problems......Page 615
16 Aqueous Ionic Equilibrium......Page 616
16.1 The Danger of Antifreeze......Page 617
16.2 Buffers: Solutions That Resist pH Change......Page 618
Calculating the pH of a Buffer Solution......Page 619
The Henderson–Hasselbalch Equation......Page 621
Calculating pH Changes in a Buffer Solution......Page 624
Buffers Containing a Base and Its Conjugate Acid......Page 628
Relative Amounts of Acid and Base......Page 629
Absolute Concentrations of the Acid and Conjugate Base......Page 630
Buffer Range......Page 631
16.4 Titrations and pH Curves......Page 632
The Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base......Page 633
The Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base......Page 637
Indicators: pH-Dependent Colors......Page 642
16.5 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product Constant......Page 644
Ksp and Molar Solubility......Page 645
The Effect of a Common Ion on Solubility......Page 647
The Effect of pH on Solubility......Page 648
16.6 Precipitation......Page 649
16.7 Complex Ion Equilibria......Page 651
Key Concepts......Page 652
Key Skills......Page 653
Problems by Topic......Page 654
Cumulative Problems......Page 658
Conceptual Problems......Page 659
17 Free Energy and Thermodynamics......Page 660
17.1 Nature’s Heat Tax: You Can’t Win and You Can’t Break Even......Page 661
17.2 Spontaneous and Nonspontaneous Processes......Page 662
17.3 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 663
Entropy......Page 665
The Entropy Change Associated with a Change in State......Page 668
17.4 Heat Transfer and Changes in the Entropy of the Surroundings......Page 669
The Temperature Dependence of ΔSsurr......Page 670
Quantifying Entropy Changes in the Surroundings......Page 671
17.5 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 672
The Effect of ΔH, ΔS, and T on Spontaneity......Page 674
Standard Molar Entropies (S°) and the Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 676
Calculating Free Energy Changes with ΔG°rxn= ΔH°rxn – T ΔS°rxn......Page 680
Calculating ΔG°rxn with Tabulated Values of Free Energies of Formation......Page 682
Determining ΔG°rxn for a Stepwise Reaction from the Changes in Free Energy for Each of the Steps......Page 684
Why Free Energy Is “Free”......Page 685
The Free Energy Change of a Reaction under Nonstandard Conditions......Page 686
17.9 Free Energy and Equilibrium: Relating ΔG°rxn to the Equilibrium Constant (K)......Page 689
Key Concepts......Page 691
Key Skills......Page 692
Problems by Topic......Page 693
Cumulative Problems......Page 695
Challenge Problems......Page 696
Conceptual Problems......Page 697
18 Electrochemistry......Page 698
18.1 Pulling the Plug on the Power Grid......Page 699
18.2 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations......Page 700
18.3 Voltaic (or Galvanic) Cells: Generating Electricity from Spontaneous Chemical Reactions......Page 703
Electrochemical Cell Notation......Page 705
18.4 Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 706
Predicting the Spontaneous Direction of an Oxidation–Reduction Reaction......Page 711
Predicting Whether a Metal Will Dissolve in Acid......Page 712
The Relationship between ΔG° and E°cell......Page 713
The Relationship between E°cell and K......Page 715
18.6 Cell Potential and Concentration......Page 716
Concentration Cells......Page 719
Lead–Acid Storage Batteries......Page 721
Other Rechargeable Batteries......Page 722
Fuel Cells......Page 723
18.8 Electrolysis: Driving Nonspontaneous Chemical Reactions with Electricity......Page 724
Stoichiometry of Electrolysis......Page 726
18.9 Corrosion: Undesirable Redox Reactions......Page 728
Preventing Corrosion......Page 729
Key Concepts......Page 730
Problems by Topic......Page 731
Cumulative Problems......Page 734
Conceptual Problems......Page 735
19 Radioactivity and Nuclear Chemistry......Page 736
19.1 Diagnosing Appendicitis......Page 737
Alpha (α) Decay......Page 738
Positron Emission......Page 740
Electron Capture......Page 741
19.3 The Valley of Stability: Predicting the Type of Radioactivity......Page 742
Radioactive Decay Series......Page 744
19.4 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating......Page 745
The Integrated Rate Law......Page 746
Radiocarbon Dating: Using Radioactivity to Measure the Age of Fossils and Artifacts......Page 747
Uranium/Lead Dating......Page 749
19.5 The Discovery of Fission: The Atomic Bomb and Nuclear Power......Page 751
Nuclear Power: Using Fission to Generate Electricity......Page 753
19.6 Converting Mass to Energy: Mass Defect and Nuclear Binding Energy......Page 754
Mass Defect......Page 755
Acute Radiation Damage......Page 757
Measuring Radiation Exposure......Page 758
Diagnosis in Medicine......Page 760
Key Terms......Page 761
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 762
Problems by Topic......Page 763
Conceptual Problems......Page 765
20 Organic Chemistry......Page 766
20.1 Fragrances and Odors......Page 767
20.2 Carbon: Why It Is Unique......Page 768
20.3 Hydrocarbons: Compounds Containing Only Carbon and Hydrogen......Page 769
Drawing Hydrocarbon Structures......Page 770
Stereoisomerism and Optical Isomerism......Page 773
20.4 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons......Page 774
Naming Alkanes......Page 775
20.5 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 778
Naming Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 779
20.6 Hydrocarbon Reactions......Page 782
Reactions of Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 783
20.7 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 784
Naming Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 785
Alcohols......Page 786
Aldehydes and Ketones......Page 788
Carboxylic Acids and Esters......Page 789
Amines......Page 790
20.9 Polymers......Page 791
Key Concepts......Page 793
Key Equations and Relationships......Page 794
Problems by Topic......Page 795
Cumulative Problems......Page 799
Challenge Problems......Page 801
Conceptual Problems......Page 802
A: Scientific Notation......Page 803
B: Logarithms......Page 805
D: Graphs......Page 807
B: Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 ˚C......Page 809
C: Aqueous Equilibrium Constants at 25 ˚C......Page 814
E: Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures......Page 817
Appendix III: Answers to Selected Exercises......Page 818
Appendix IV: Answers to In-Chapter Practice Problems......Page 842
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