Principles of anatomy and physiology

COVER......Page 1
TITLE PAGE......Page 3
COPYRIGHT......Page 4
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 19
ABOUT THE AUTHORS......Page 21
BRIEF CONTENTS......Page 23
CONTENTS......Page 24
1: AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY......Page 37
1.2 LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION AND BODY SYSTEMS......Page 38
Basic Life Processes......Page 41
Homeostasis and Body Fluids......Page 44
Control of Homeostasis......Page 45
Homeostatic Imbalances......Page 47
Regional Names......Page 48
Directional Terms......Page 49
Planes and Sections......Page 52
Body Cavities......Page 53
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants......Page 55
1.6 MEDICAL IMAGING......Page 57
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 61
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 63
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 64
2: THE CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION......Page 65
Chemical Elements......Page 66
Atomic Number and Mass Number......Page 67
Ions, Molecules, and Compounds......Page 68
Ionic Bonds......Page 69
Covalent Bonds......Page 71
Hydrogen Bonds......Page 72
Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions......Page 73
Types of Chemical Reactions......Page 74
Water......Page 76
Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions......Page 77
Maintaining pH: Buffer Systems......Page 78
Carbon and Its Functional Groups......Page 80
Carbohydrates......Page 81
Lipids......Page 83
Proteins......Page 87
Adenosine Triphosphate......Page 92
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 94
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 96
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 97
3: THE CELLULAR LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION......Page 99
3.1 PARTS OF A CELL......Page 100
Structure of the Plasma Membrane......Page 101
Membrane Fluidity......Page 102
Membrane Permeability......Page 103
Passive Processes......Page 104
Active Processes......Page 109
Cytosol......Page 114
Organelles......Page 117
3.5 NUCLEUS......Page 124
Transcription......Page 128
3.7 CELL DIVISION......Page 130
Somatic Cell Division......Page 132
Control of Cell Destiny......Page 135
Reproductive Cell Division......Page 136
3.9 AGING AND CELLS......Page 139
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 142
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 146
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 148
4: THE TISSUE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION......Page 149
4.2 CELL JUNCTIONS......Page 150
Adherens Junctions......Page 151
4.4 EPITHELIAL TISSUES......Page 152
Classification of Epithelial Tissues......Page 154
Covering and Lining Epithelium......Page 155
Glandular Epithelium......Page 162
Connective Tissue Cells......Page 164
Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix......Page 166
Classification of Connective Tissues......Page 167
Embryonic Connective Tissues......Page 168
Mature Connective Tissues......Page 169
4.6 MEMBRANES......Page 175
Epithelial Membranes......Page 176
Synovial Membranes......Page 178
4.8 NERVOUS TISSUE......Page 179
4.9 EXCITABLE CELLS......Page 180
4.10 TISSUE REPAIR: RESTORING HOMEOSTASIS......Page 181
4.11 AGING AND TISSUES......Page 182
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 183
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 187
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 188
5: THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM......Page 189
5.1 STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN......Page 190
Epidermis......Page 191
Keratinization and Growth of the Epidermis......Page 194
Dermis......Page 195
The Structural Basis of Skin Color......Page 196
Hair......Page 197
Skin Glands......Page 200
Nails......Page 201
Thermoregulation......Page 203
Synthesis of Vitamin D......Page 204
Deep Wound Healing......Page 205
5.6 DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM......Page 206
5.7 AGING AND THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM......Page 208
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 214
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 216
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 217
6: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: BONE TISSUE......Page 218
6.2 STRUCTURE OF BONE......Page 219
6.3 HISTOLOGY OF BONE TISSUE......Page 220
Spongy Bone Tissue......Page 222
6.4 BLOOD AND NERVE SUPPLY OF BONE......Page 224
Initial Bone Formation in an Embryo and Fetus......Page 225
Bone Growth during Infancy, Childhood, and Adolescence......Page 228
Remodeling of Bone......Page 230
6.6 FRACTURE AND REPAIR OF BONE......Page 232
6.7 BONE’S ROLE IN CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS......Page 236
6.9 AGING AND BONE TISSUE......Page 237
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 240
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 241
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 243
7: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE AXIAL SKELETON......Page 244
7.2 TYPES OF BONES......Page 245
7.3 BONE SURFACE MARKINGS......Page 247
7.4 SKULL......Page 248
Nasal Septum......Page 263
Foramina......Page 264
Unique Features of the Skull......Page 265
7.5 HYOID BONE......Page 268
7.6 VERTEBRAL COLUMN......Page 269
Intervertebral Discs......Page 270
Parts of a Typical Vertebra......Page 271
7.7 THORAX......Page 272
Sacrum......Page 279
Coccyx......Page 280
Sternum......Page 281
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 287
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 288
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 290
8: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM: THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON......Page 291
8.1 PECTORAL (SHOULDER) GIRDLE......Page 292
8.2 UPPER LIMB (EXTREMITY)......Page 296
Carpals......Page 301
Phalanges......Page 302
8.3 PELVIC (HIP) GIRDLE......Page 303
Pubis......Page 305
8.4 FALSE AND TRUE PELVES......Page 306
8.5 COMPARISON OF FEMALE AND MALE PELVES......Page 307
8.6 LOWER LIMB (EXTREMITY)......Page 309
Femur......Page 310
Patella......Page 312
Tibia......Page 313
Fibula......Page 314
Tarsals, Metatarsals, and Phalanges......Page 315
Arches of the Foot......Page 316
8.7 DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM......Page 318
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 321
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 322
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 324
9: JOINTS......Page 325
Sutures......Page 326
Interosseous Membranes......Page 327
Structure of Synovial Joints......Page 328
Bursae and Tendon Sheaths......Page 331
Angular Movements......Page 332
Rotation......Page 335
Special Movements......Page 336
Ball-and-Socket Joints......Page 338
9.8 SELECTED JOINTS OF THE BODY......Page 341
Movements......Page 344
Anatomical Components......Page 346
Movements......Page 347
Movements......Page 349
Anatomical Components......Page 350
Movements......Page 351
Anatomical Components......Page 352
Movements......Page 354
Knee Replacements......Page 356
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 359
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 361
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 362
10: MUSCULAR TISSUE......Page 363
Properties of Muscular Tissue......Page 364
Connective Tissue Components......Page 365
Microscopic Anatomy of a Skeletal Muscle Fiber......Page 367
Muscle Proteins......Page 371
The Sliding Filament Mechanism......Page 374
The Neuromuscular Junction......Page 377
Production of ATP in Muscle Fibers......Page 381
Motor Units......Page 383
Frequency of Stimulation......Page 384
Motor Unit Recruitment......Page 385
Isotonic and Isometric Contractions......Page 386
Fast Oxidative–Glycolytic Fibers......Page 387
Effective Stretching......Page 388
Strength Training......Page 389
10.9 SMOOTH MUSCLE TISSUE......Page 390
Physiology of Smooth Muscle......Page 391
10.11 DEVELOPMENT OF MUSCLE......Page 392
10.12 AGING AND MUSCULAR TISSUE......Page 394
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 396
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 399
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 401
11: THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM......Page 402
Muscle Attachment Sites: Origin and Insertion......Page 403
Effects of Fascicle Arrangement......Page 404
Coordination among Muscles......Page 405
11.3 PRINCIPAL SKELETAL MUSCLES......Page 407
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 479
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 480
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 482
12: NERVOUS TISSUE......Page 483
Functions of the Nervous System......Page 484
Neurons......Page 486
Neuroglia......Page 490
Myelination......Page 492
Collections of Nervous Tissue......Page 493
12.3 ELECTRICAL SIGNALS IN NEURONS......Page 494
Ion Channels......Page 496
Resting Membrane Potential......Page 498
Graded Potentials......Page 500
Generation of Action Potentials......Page 502
Propagation of Action Potentials......Page 506
Comparison of Electrical Signals Produced by Excitable Cells......Page 508
Chemical Synapses......Page 509
Removal of Neurotransmitter......Page 511
Spatial and Temporal Summation of Postsynaptic Potentials......Page 513
Small-Molecule Neurotransmitters......Page 516
Neuropeptides......Page 518
12.6 NEURAL CIRCUITS......Page 519
12.7 REGENERATION AND REPAIR OF NERVOUS TISSUE......Page 520
Damage and Repair in the PNS......Page 521
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 523
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 525
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 527
13: THE SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES......Page 528
External Anatomy of the Spinal Cord......Page 529
Internal Anatomy of the Spinal Cord......Page 534
13.2 SPINAL NERVES......Page 536
Distribution of Spinal Nerves......Page 537
Sensory and Motor Tracts......Page 548
Reflexes and Reflex Arcs......Page 550
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 559
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 560
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 562
14: THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES......Page 563
Protective Coverings of the Brain......Page 564
Functions of CSF......Page 567
Circulation of CSF......Page 568
Medulla Oblongata......Page 572
Midbrain......Page 574
Reticular Formation......Page 576
14.4 THE CEREBELLUM......Page 577
Thalamus......Page 579
Hypothalamus......Page 580
Cerebral Cortex......Page 582
The Limbic System......Page 585
14.7 FUNCTIONAL ORGANIZATION OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX......Page 588
Association Areas......Page 589
Brain Waves......Page 592
14.8 CRANIAL NERVES......Page 593
14.9 DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 607
14.10 AGING AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 609
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 611
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 613
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 615
15: THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 617
Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Motor Neurons......Page 618
Anatomical Components......Page 620
Structure of the Sympathetic Division......Page 626
Structure of the Parasympathetic Division......Page 627
Cholinergic Neurons and Receptors......Page 629
Receptor Agonists and Antagonists......Page 630
Parasympathetic Responses......Page 632
Autonomic Reflexes......Page 635
Autonomic Control by Higher Centers......Page 637
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 638
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 639
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 641
16: SENSORY, MOTOR, AND INTEGRATIVE SYSTEMS......Page 642
Sensory Receptors......Page 643
Tactile Sensations......Page 646
Pain Sensations......Page 647
Proprioceptive Sensations......Page 649
16.3 SOMATIC SENSORY PATHWAYS......Page 651
Anterolateral Pathway to the Cortex......Page 652
Trigeminothalamic Pathway to the Cortex......Page 653
Mapping the Primary Somatosensory Area......Page 654
Somatic Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum......Page 655
16.4 SOMATIC MOTOR PATHWAYS......Page 656
Organization of Upper Motor Neuron Pathways......Page 657
Modulation of Movement by the Cerebellum......Page 661
Wakefulness and Sleep......Page 663
Learning and Memory......Page 664
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 667
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 668
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 670
17: THE SPECIAL SENSES......Page 671
Anatomy of Olfactory Receptors......Page 672
Physiology of Olfaction......Page 673
The Olfactory Pathway......Page 674
Physiology of Gustation......Page 675
The Gustatory Pathway......Page 677
Accessory Structures of the Eye......Page 678
Anatomy of the Eyeball......Page 682
Image Formation......Page 685
Physiology of Vision......Page 689
The Visual Pathway......Page 691
17.4 HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM......Page 692
Anatomy of the Ear......Page 694
The Nature of Sound Waves......Page 697
Physiology of Hearing......Page 700
Physiology of Equilibrium......Page 701
Equilibrium Pathways......Page 705
Ears......Page 707
17.6 AGING AND THE SPECIAL SENSES......Page 709
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 711
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 713
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 715
18: THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM......Page 716
18.2 ENDOCRINE GLANDS......Page 717
The Role of Hormone Receptors......Page 718
Circulating and Local Hormones......Page 719
18.4 MECHANISMS OF HORMONE ACTION......Page 720
Action of Water-Soluble Hormones......Page 722
Hormone Interactions......Page 723
Anterior Pituitary......Page 724
Posterior Pituitary......Page 730
Formation, Storage, and Release of Thyroid Hormones......Page 732
Actions of Thyroid Hormones......Page 734
Calcitonin......Page 735
Parathyroid Hormone......Page 736
Adrenal Cortex......Page 739
Adrenal Medulla......Page 742
18.10 PANCREATIC ISLETS......Page 743
Regulation of Glucagon and Insulin Secretion......Page 745
18.12 PINEAL GLAND AND THYMUS......Page 747
Eicosanoids......Page 748
The Fight-or-Flight Response......Page 749
Stress and Disease......Page 750
18.15 DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM......Page 752
18.16 AGING AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM......Page 753
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 758
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 761
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 763
19: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE BLOOD......Page 764
Components of Blood......Page 765
19.2 FORMATION OF BLOOD CELLS......Page 768
RBC Physiology......Page 771
Types of WBCs......Page 774
Functions of WBCs......Page 775
19.5 PLATELETS......Page 777
Platelet Plug Formation......Page 779
Blood Clotting......Page 780
Hemostatic Control Mechanisms......Page 782
Intravascular Clotting......Page 783
ABO Blood Group......Page 784
Rh Blood Group......Page 785
Typing and Cross-Matching Blood for Transfusion......Page 786
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 789
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 791
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 792
20: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: THE HEART......Page 793
Pericardium......Page 794
Layers of the Heart Wall......Page 796
Chambers of the Heart......Page 797
Fibrous Skeleton of the Heart......Page 801
20.2 HEART VALVES AND CIRCULATION OF BLOOD......Page 802
Operation of the Semilunar Valves......Page 803
Coronary Circulation......Page 804
Autorhythmic Fibers: The Conduction System......Page 808
Action Potential and Contraction of Contractile Fibers......Page 811
Electrocardiogram......Page 812
Correlation of ECG Waves with Atrial and Ventricular Systole......Page 813
Pressure and Volume Changes during the Cardiac Cycle......Page 815
Heart Sounds......Page 817
Regulation of Stroke Volume......Page 818
Regulation of Heart Rate......Page 819
20.7 HELP FOR FAILING HEARTS......Page 822
20.8 DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEART......Page 825
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 833
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 835
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 837
21: THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM: BLOOD VESSELS AND HEMODYNAMICS......Page 838
Basic Structure of a Blood Vessel......Page 839
Arteries......Page 841
Capillaries......Page 842
Venules......Page 844
Veins......Page 845
Diffusion......Page 847
Bulk Flow: Filtration and Reabsorption......Page 848
Blood Pressure......Page 850
Venous Return......Page 851
Velocity of Blood Flow......Page 852
Role of the Cardiovascular Center......Page 853
Neural Regulation of Blood Pressure......Page 855
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure......Page 856
Autoregulation of Blood Pressure......Page 857
Measuring Blood Pressure......Page 858
Types of Shock......Page 859
21.7 CIRCULATORY ROUTES......Page 860
The Systemic Circulation......Page 862
The Hepatic Portal Circulation......Page 897
The Fetal Circulation......Page 898
21.8 DEVELOPMENT OF BLOOD VESSELS AND BLOOD......Page 901
21.9 AGING AND THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM......Page 902
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 905
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 907
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 909
22: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY......Page 911
Lymphatic Vessels and Lymph Circulation......Page 912
Lymphatic Organs and Tissues......Page 916
First Line of Defense: Skin and Mucous Membranes......Page 922
Second Line of Defense: Internal Defenses......Page 923
Maturation of T Cells and B Cells......Page 926
Clonal Selection: The Principle......Page 927
Antigens and Antigen Receptors......Page 929
Pathways of Antigen Processing......Page 930
22.5 CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY......Page 932
Activation and Clonal Selection of Helper T Cells......Page 933
Elimination of Invaders......Page 934
Immunological Surveillance......Page 935
Antibodies......Page 936
Immunological Memory......Page 941
22.7 SELF-RECOGNITION AND SELF-TOLERANCE......Page 942
22.9 AGING AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM......Page 944
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 949
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 951
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 953
23: THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 954
Nose......Page 955
Pharynx......Page 958
Larynx......Page 959
The Structures of Voice Production......Page 961
Trachea......Page 963
Bronchi......Page 964
Lungs......Page 965
Patency of the Respiratory System......Page 970
Pressure Changes during Pulmonary Ventilation......Page 972
Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation......Page 975
Breathing Patterns and Modified Respiratory Movements......Page 976
23.3 LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES......Page 977
Gas Laws: Dalton’s Law and Henry’s Law......Page 979
External and Internal Respiration......Page 980
Oxygen Transport......Page 982
Summary of Gas Exchange and Transport in Lungs and Tissues......Page 986
Respiratory Center......Page 987
Regulation of the Respiratory Center......Page 989
23.7 EXERCISE AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 991
23.8 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 992
23.9 AGING AND THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM......Page 995
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 998
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1000
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1002
24: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM......Page 1003
24.1 OVERVIEW OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM......Page 1004
Mucosa......Page 1005
Serosa......Page 1006
Gastrointestinal Reflex Pathways......Page 1007
24.4 PERITONEUM......Page 1008
Salivary Glands......Page 1010
Teeth......Page 1013
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Mouth......Page 1014
Histology of the Esophagus......Page 1016
24.8 DEGLUTITION......Page 1017
Anatomy of the Stomach......Page 1018
Histology of the Stomach......Page 1020
Mechanical and Chemical Digestion in the Stomach......Page 1022
Composition and Functions of Pancreatic Juice......Page 1024
Anatomy of the Liver and Gallbladder......Page 1026
Histology of the Liver and Gallbladder......Page 1027
Blood Supply of the Liver......Page 1029
Functions of the Liver and Gallbladder......Page 1030
Histology of the Small Intestine......Page 1031
Mechanical Digestion in the Small Intestine......Page 1034
Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine......Page 1036
Absorption in the Small Intestine......Page 1037
Histology of the Large Intestine......Page 1042
Chemical Digestion in the Large Intestine......Page 1045
The Defecation Reflex......Page 1046
Cephalic Phase......Page 1047
Intestinal Phase......Page 1048
Other Hormones of the Digestive System......Page 1049
24.16 AGING AND THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM......Page 1050
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1054
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1057
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1059
25: METABOLISM AND NUTRITION......Page 1060
Coupling of Catabolism and Anabolism by ATP......Page 1061
Mechanisms of ATP Generation......Page 1062
Glucose Catabolism......Page 1063
Glucose Anabolism......Page 1070
Transport of Lipids by Lipoproteins......Page 1073
Lipid Catabolism: Lipolysis......Page 1074
Lipid Anabolism: Lipogenesis......Page 1075
Protein Anabolism......Page 1076
25.6 KEY MOLECULES AT METABOLIC CROSSROADS......Page 1078
25.7 METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS......Page 1079
Metabolism during the Absorptive State......Page 1080
Metabolism during the Postabsorptive State......Page 1082
Metabolism during Fasting and Starvation......Page 1083
Body Temperature Homeostasis......Page 1084
Energy Homeostasis and Regulation of Food Intake......Page 1087
25.9 NUTRITION......Page 1088
Guidelines for Healthy Eating......Page 1089
Vitamins......Page 1090
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1095
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1098
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1100
26: THE URINARY SYSTEM......Page 1101
External Anatomy of the Kidneys......Page 1103
Blood and Nerve Supply of the Kidneys......Page 1105
The Nephron......Page 1107
26.3 OVERVIEW OF RENAL PHYSIOLOGY......Page 1112
The Filtration Membrane......Page 1113
Net Filtration Pressure......Page 1114
Glomerular Filtration Rate......Page 1115
Principles of Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion......Page 1117
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule......Page 1119
Reabsorption in the Loop of Henle......Page 1121
Reabsorption and Secretion in the Late Distal Convoluted Tubule and Collecting Duct......Page 1122
Hormonal Regulation of Tubular Reabsorption and Tubular Secretion......Page 1123
26.6 PRODUCTION OF DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED URINE......Page 1124
Formation of Concentrated Urine......Page 1125
Urinalysis......Page 1128
Renal Plasma Clearance......Page 1130
Ureters......Page 1132
Urinary Bladder......Page 1133
Urethra......Page 1135
26.10 DEVELOPMENT OF THE URINARY SYSTEM......Page 1136
26.11 AGING AND THE URINARY SYSTEM......Page 1139
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1141
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1143
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1145
27: FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE HOMEOSTASIS......Page 1146
27.1 FLUID COMPARTMENTS AND FLUID BALANCE......Page 1147
Regulation of Water and Solute Loss......Page 1148
Movement of Water between Body Fluid Compartments......Page 1150
Concentrations of Electrolytes in Body Fluids......Page 1151
Sodium......Page 1152
Phosphate......Page 1153
27.3 ACID–BASE BALANCE......Page 1154
The Actions of Buffer Systems......Page 1156
Exhalation of Carbon Dioxide......Page 1157
Kidney Excretion of H +......Page 1158
Acid–Base Imbalances......Page 1159
27.4 AGING AND FLUID, ELECTROLYTE, AND ACID–BASE BALANCE......Page 1160
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1161
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1163
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1164
28: THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS......Page 1165
Scrotum......Page 1166
Testes......Page 1167
Reproductive System Ducts in Males......Page 1174
Accessory Sex Glands......Page 1176
Penis......Page 1177
Ovaries......Page 1179
Uterine Tubes......Page 1185
Uterus......Page 1187
Vagina......Page 1191
Vulva......Page 1193
Mammary Glands......Page 1194
Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Cycle......Page 1196
Phases of the Female Reproductive Cycle......Page 1197
Birth Control Methods......Page 1201
28.5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS......Page 1203
28.6 AGING AND THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS......Page 1206
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1211
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1214
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1216
29: DEVELOPMENT AND INHERITANCE......Page 1217
First Week of Development......Page 1218
Second Week of Development......Page 1222
Third Week of Development......Page 1224
Fourth Week of Development......Page 1231
Fifth through Eighth Weeks of Development......Page 1233
29.2 FETAL PERIOD......Page 1234
Amniocentesis......Page 1237
Noninvasive Prenatal Tests......Page 1238
Hormones of Pregnancy......Page 1239
Changes during Pregnancy......Page 1241
29.7 LABOR......Page 1242
Cardiovascular Adjustments......Page 1244
29.9 THE PHYSIOLOGY OF LACTATION......Page 1245
29.10 INHERITANCE......Page 1246
Genotype and Phenotype......Page 1247
Variations on Dominant–Recessive Inheritance......Page 1248
Autosomes, Sex Chromosomes, and Sex Determination......Page 1250
Sex-Linked Inheritance......Page 1251
CHAPTER REVIEW AND RESOURCE SUMMARY......Page 1253
SELF-QUIZ QUESTIONS......Page 1256
ANSWERS TO FIGURE QUESTIONS......Page 1258
APPENDIX A: MEASUREMENTS......Page 1259
APPENDIX B: PERIODIC TABLE......Page 1261
APPENDIX C: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED BLOOD TESTS......Page 1262
APPENDIX D: NORMAL VALUES FOR SELECTED URINE TESTS......Page 1264
APPENDIX E: ANSWERS......Page 1266
GLOSSARY......Page 1273
CREDITS......Page 1303
INDEX......Page 1307